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PPR993 公交车安全标准:视觉隐蔽(英)TRL 2022.pdf
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PPR993 公交车安全标准:视觉隐蔽(英)TRL 2022.pdf
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PUBLISHED PROJECT REPORT
PPR993
The Transport for London Bus Safety
Standard: Visual Conspicuity
Evaluation of Safety Measure
Stephen Skippon, Tom Hyatt, Emily Castiaux,
David Jenkins, Alix Edwards, Phil Martin, and
Shaun Helman
BSS Evaluation of Visual Conspicuity
Version 1.1 i PPR993
Report details
Report prepared for:
Transport for London (TfL)
Project/customer reference:
tfl_scp_001593
Copyright:
© TRL Limited
Report date:
31/07/2022
Report status/version:
Version 1.1
Quality approval:
Anna George
(Project Manager)
Shaun Helman
(Technical Reviewer)
Disclaimer
This report has been produced by TRL Limited (TRL) under a contract with Transport
for London (TfL). Any views expressed in this report are not necessarily those of
Transport for London (TfL).
The information contained herein is the property of TRL Limited and does not
necessarily reflect the views or policies of the customer for whom this report was
prepared. Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the matter presented in
this report is relevant, accurate and up-to-date, TRL Limited cannot accept any
liability for any error or omission, or reliance on part or all of the content in another
context.
When purchased in hard copy, this publication is printed on paper that is FSC
(Forest Stewardship Council) and TCF (Totally Chlorine Free) registered.
Contents amendment record
This report has been amended and issued as follows:
Version
Date
Description
Editor
Technical
Reviewer
1.1
31/07/2022
Corrections to Table 1 & Figure 3
Added reference to TfL for latest specification in
the executive summary and recommendations
AE
PSM & DH
BSS Evaluation of Visual Conspicuity
Version 1.1 ii PPR993
Executive Summary
Bus Safety Standard (BSS)
The Mayor of London’s Transport Strategy sets out a commitment to vision zero: no
deaths or serious injuries from any collisions on the roads of the capital by 2041, and
no fatalities involving a London bus by 2030. The BSS is focussed on the
contribution that vehicle safety features can make towards these challenging targets.
To develop the standard a large body of research and technical input was needed,
so Transport for London (TfL) commissioned TRL (the Transport Research
Laboratory) to deliver the research and consult with the bus industry. The delivery
team has included a mix of engineers and human factors experts, to provide the
balance of research required.
All TfL buses conform to regulatory requirements. TfL already uses a more
demanding specification when contracting services and this requires higher
standards in areas including environmental and noise emissions, accessibility,
construction, operational requirements, and more. Many safety aspects are covered
in the specification such as fire suppression systems, door and fittings safety,
handrails, daytime running lights, and others. However, the new BSS goes further
with a range of additional requirements developed by TRL and their partners and
peer-reviewed by independent safety experts. Accompanying the specification there
are guidance notes to help inform the bus operators and manufacturers of what the
specification is aiming to achieve and some practical tips on how to meet the
requirements.
For each safety measure considered, a thorough review was completed covering the
current regulations and standards, the specification of the current bus fleet and
available solutions.
Full-scale trials and testing were also carried out with the following objectives. Firstly,
the tests were used to evaluate the solutions in a realistic environment to ensure that
a safety improvement was feasible. Secondly, the testing was used to inform the
development of objective test and assessment protocols. These protocols will allow
repeatable testing according to precise instructions so that the results are
comparable. The assessment protocol provides instructions for how to interpret the
test data for a bus or system, which can be a simple pass/fail check, or something
more complex intended to encourage best practice levels of performance. These
assessment protocols will allow TfL to judge how well each bus performs against the
BSS and will allow a fair comparison in terms of safety if they have a choice between
models for a given route.
It is important to ensure the money is spent wisely on the package of measures that
will give the most cost-effective result. If zero fatalities can be achieved at a low cost,
it remains better than achieving it at a higher cost. TRL has developed a cost-benefit
model describing the value of implementing the safety measures, both in terms of
casualties saved and the technology and operational costs of achieving that. Input
from the bus industry has formed the backbone of all the research and the cost-
BSS Evaluation of Visual Conspicuity
Version 1.1 iii PPR993
benefit modelling. This modelling has helped inform the decisions of TfL’s bus safety
development team in terms of implementing the safety measures on new buses.
This research was completed in 2018. The detailed specification, assessment
procedures and guidance notes have been incorporated into the Transport for
London specification for buses, which is a continuously updated document to keep
pace with the latest technological and research developments. This report is not the
specification for a bus and should not be used as such. Bus operators,
manufacturers, and their supply chain should consult with TfL for the specification.
Visual Conspicuity
The annual number of bus-pedestrian collisions in London is slightly over 340, of
which around 120 result in the pedestrian being killed or seriously injured. The visual
conspicuity of a bus may potentially play a role in some of these collisions with
pedestrians, particularly the 49% in which the pedestrian is struck by the front of the
bus. While many such collisions can be attributed to distracted walking on the part of
pedestrians, it may be possible to mitigate against some collisions, where the
pedestrian looks but fails to see (LBFTS) the bus, or misjudges the time-to-collision
(TTC). Improvements to the visual conspicuity of the front face of buses might help
reduce the number of such collisions.
The scope for improving frontal visual conspicuity is restricted by UNECE Regulation
48 (for new build) and the Road Vehicle Lighting Regulations 1989 (for retrofit). Thus,
only a limited number of options are possible. The following were tested:
• Additional pair of end-outline marker lights
• Reflective tape outlining as far as possible the front edges of bus
• Additional pair of end-outline marker lights PLUS reflective tape
All three were tested for their effectiveness at reducing the likelihood of LBFTS and
TTC errors compared to a baseline condition with neither additional lights nor
reflective tape. Since both LBFTS and TTC errors are errors of pedestrian perception,
the tests both involved human participants. LBFTS errors are essentially failures of
visual search, so the effectiveness of the counter-measures were tested in a
controlled laboratory test the measured how quickly participants were able to identify
the presence of a bus in their visual field. Testing TTC requires an object moving
appropriately, at traffic speed, so the effectiveness of the counter-measures was
tested in a controlled test-track trial that measured the interval between the time
when a participant judged it was no longer safe to cross in front of an approaching
bus and the time the bus passed the participant’s position.
The tests found no significant differences in the time it took for participants to identify
a bus, or in participants’ time-to-collision estimates, (using the conventional p < 0.05
criterion) between any of the counter-measures and baseline, in either day or night
conditions.
Thus, none of the proposed counter-measures was effective with respect either to
LBFTS or TTC errors in adults in optimum conditions. A plausible explanation for this
BSS Evaluation of Visual Conspicuity
Version 1.1 iv PPR993
is that buses are large, conspicuous objects that are easy to see, and the proposed
countermeasures, in being consistent with UNECE R48 (additional end-outline
marker lights) or the Road Vehicle Lighting Regulations 1989 (retrofitted reflective
tape), added little to their conspicuity. Since testing was carried out with adults with
normal unimpaired vision, it is possible that the countermeasures might yet be
effective for children, the elderly, people with partial sight, or those whose visual
perception is impaired through mental fatigue, alcohol intoxication, drug use, etc.
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