Principles of Mobile Communication Second Edition

1. 2. INTRODUCTION 2.1 1.1.1 First Generation Cellular Systems 1.1.2 Second Generation Cellular Systems 1.1.2.1 GSM/DCS1800/PCS1900 1.1.2.2 IS-54/136 and IS-95 1.1.2.3 PDC 1.1.3 Cordless Telephone Systems 1.1.4 Third Generation Cellular Systems 1.1.5 Wireless LANs and and PANs Wireless Systems and Standards Frequency Reuse and the Cellular Concept Mobile Radio Propagation Environment Co-channel Interference and Noise Receiver Sensitivity and Link Budget Coverage Spectral Efficiency and Capacity PROPAGATION MODELING Frequency-Non-Selective (Flat) Multipath-Fading 2.1.1 Received Signal Correlation and Spectrum 2.1.2 Received Envelope and Phase Distribution 2.1.2.1 Rayleigh Fading 2.1.2.2 Ricean Fading 2.1.2.3 Nakagami Fading 2.1.2.4 Envelope Phase 2.1.3 Envelope Correlation and Spectra 2.1.3.1 Squared-Envelope Correlation and Spectra 2.1.4 Level Crossing Rates and Fade Durations 2.1.4.1 Envelope Level Crossing Rate 2.1.4.2 Zero Crossing Rate 2.1.4.3 Average Envelope Fade Duration 2.1.5 Spatial Correlations 2.1.5.1 Received Signal at the Base Station Frequency-Selective Multipath-Fading 2.2.1 Statistical Channel Correlation Functions 2.2.2 Classification of Channels 2.2.3 Channel Output Autocorrelation Laboratory Simulation of Multipath-Fading Channels 2.3.1 Filtered Gaussian Noise 2.3.2 Sum of Sinusoids Method 2.3.3 Multiple Faded Envelopes 2.3.4 Simulation of Wide-band Multipath-Fading Channels Shadowing 2.4.1 Laboratory Simulation of Shadowing 2.4.2 Composite Shadowing-Fading Distributions 2.4.2.1 Composite Gamma-log-normal Distribution Path Loss Models 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 Path Loss in Macrocells 2.5.1.1 Okumura-Hata and CCIR Models 2.5.1.2 Lee’s Area-to-Area Model Path Loss in Outdoor Microcells 2.5.2.1 COST231-Hata Model 2.5.2.2 COST231-Walfish-Ikegami Model 2.5.2.3 Street Microcells Path Loss in Indoor Microcells CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE Multiple Log-normal Interferers 3.1.1 Fenton-Wilkinson Method 3.1.2 Schwartz-and Yeh-Method 3.1.3 Parley’s Method 3.1.4 Numerical Comparisons Probability of Outage Multiple Ricean/Rayleigh Interferers Multiple Log-normal Nakagami Interferers 3.4.1 Statistically Identical Interferers Multiple Log-normal Ricean/Rayleigh Interferers 3.5.1 Single Interferer 3.5.2 Multiple Interferers MODULATED SIGNALS AND THEIR POWER SPECTRA Representation of Band-pass Modulated Signals 4.1.1 Vector Space Representations 4.1.2 Gram-Schmidt Procedure 4.1.3 Signal Energy and Correlations Nyquist Pulse Shaping Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) Phase Shift Keying (PSK) 4.4.1 Offset QPSK (OQSPK) Orthogonal Modulation and Variants Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 4.6.1 Multiresolution Modulation 4.6.2 FFT-Based OFDM System Continuous Phase Modulation (CPM) 4.7.1 Full Response CPM 4.7.1.1 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) Partial Response CPM 4.8.1 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) 4.8.2 Linearized OMSK (LGMSK) 4.8.3 Tamed Frequency Modulation (TFM) Power Spectral Densities of Digitally Modulated Signals 4.9.1 Psd of a Complex Envelope 4.9.2 Psd of QAM 4.9.3 Psd of PSK 4.9.4 Psd of OQPSK 4.9.5 Psd of 4.9.6 Psd of OFDM 4.9.7 Psd of Full Response CPM 4.9.7.1 Psd of CPFSK 4.9.7.2 Psd of MSK 4.9.8 Psd of GMSK and TFM DIGITAL SIGNALING ON FLAT FADING CHANNELS Vector Space Representation of Received Signals Detection of Known Signals in Additive White Gaussian Noise Probability of Error 5.3.1 Pairwise Error Probability 5.3.2 Upper Bounds on Error Probability 5.3.3 Lower Bound on Error Probability 5.3.4 Bit Versus Symbol Error Probabilities Error Probability of PSK Error Probability of M-QAM Error Probability of Orthogonal Signals Error Probability of OFDM Error Probability of MSK Differential Detection 5.9.1 Differential Detection of Non-coherent Detection Detection of CPM Signals 5.11.1 Coherent CPM Demodulator 5.11.2 Non-coherent CPM Demodulator ANTENNA DIVERSITY Diversity Combining Selective Combining Maximal Ratio Combining Equal Gain Combining Switched Combining Differential Detection with Equal Gain Combining Transmitter Diversity 6.7.1 Space-Time Transmit Diversity EQUALIZATION AND INTERFERENCE CANCELLATION Overview 7.1.1 Symbol-by-symbol Equalizers 7.1.2 Sequence Estimation 7.1.3 Co-Channel Interference Cancellation Modeling of ISI Channels 7.2.1 Vector Representation of Received Signals Optimum Receiver for ISI Channels with AWGN 7.3.1 Discrete-Time White Noise Channel Model 7.3.1.1 Time Varying Channels with Diversity 7.3.1.2 T/2-Spaced Receiver Symbol-by-Symbol Equalizers 7.4.1 Linear Equalizer 7.4.1.1 Zero-Forcing (ZF) 7.4.1.2 Minimum Mean-Square-Error (MMSE) 7.4.2 Decision Feedback Equalizer (DFE) 7.4.3 Comparison of Symbol-by-symbol Equalizers Sequence Estimation 7.5.1 MLSE and the Viterbi Algorithm 7.5.1.1 Adaptive MLSE Receiver 7.5.1.2 T/2-spaced MLSE Receiver 7.5.2 Delayed Decision-Feedback Sequence Estimation 7.5.3 Reduced-State Sequence Estimation Error Probability for MLSE on ISI Channels 7.6.1 Static ISI Channels 7.6.2 Fading ISI Channels 7.6.3 Computing the Union Bound 7.6.3.1 Error-State Diagram 7.6.3.2 The Stack Algorithm 7.6.4 Examples Error Probability for T/2-spaced MLSE Receiver 7.7.1 T-spaced MLSE Receiver 7.7.2 T/2-spaced MLSE Receiver 7.7.3 Practical T/2-spaced MLSE Receiver 7.7.4 Timing Phase Sensitivity MIMO MLSE Receivers 7.8.1 System and Channel Model 7.8.2 Joint Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation Discrete-time MIMO Channel Model The Viterbi Algorithm Pairwise Error Probability T/2-Spaced MIMO MLSE Receiver 7.8.6.1 Error Probability 7.8.6.2 Timing Phase Sensitivity 7.8.6.3 Practical Receiver Interference Rejection Combining MLSE Examples ERROR CONTROL CODING Block Codes Binary Block Codes 8.1.1.1 Minimum Distance 8.1.1.2 Syndromes 8.1.1.3 Error Detection 8.1.1.4 Weight Distribution 8.1.1.5 Probability of Undetected Error 8.1.1.6 Error Correction 8.1.1.7 Standard Array Decoding 8.1.1.8 Syndrome Decoding Convolutional Codes Encoder Description State and Trellis Diagrams, and Weight Distribution Recursive Systematic Convolutional (RSC) Codes Trellis Coded Modulation Encoder Description Mapping by Set Partitioning Coded Performance on AWGN Channels Union Bound for Convolutional Codes Coded Performance on Interleaved Flat Fading Channels Design Rules for TCM on Flat Fading Channels 8.5.1.1 Multidimensional TCM 8.5.1.2 Multiple TCM (MTCM) 8.5.1.3 2-D Trellis Codes Coded Performance on ISI Channels TCM on Static ISI Channels TCM on Noninterleaved Fading ISI Channels Examples 8.6.3.1 Static ISI Channels 8.6.3.2 Multipath Fading ISI Channels Evaluation of Union Bounds for TCM Turbo Codes PCCC Encoder PCCC Decoder SCCC Encoder and Decoder Weight Distribution 8.7.4.1 Weight Distribution of PCCCs 366 370 370 371 373 374 376 378 381 391 394 394 395 396 396 397 397 398 398 399 399 399 402 405 407 407 408 412 413 417 422 423 424 426 427 429 429 431 431 433 436 443 444 446 448 448 450 x PRINCIPLES OFMOBILE COMMUNICATION SECOND EDITION 9. 10. 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 8.7.4.2 Weight Distribution of SCCCs SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES Basic Principles of Spread Spectrum 9.1.1 Direct Sequence (DS) Spread Spectrum 9.1.2 Frequency Hop (FH) Spread Spectrum Spreading Sequences 9.2.1 Spreading Waveforms 9.2.2 m-sequences 9.2.3 Gold Sequences 9.2.4 Kasami Sequences 9.2.5 Barker Sequences 9.2.6 Walsh-Hadamard Sequences 9.2.6.1 Orthogonal and Bi-orthogonal Modulation 9.2.7 Variable Length Orthogonal Codes 9.2.8 Complementary Code Keying (CCK) Power Spectral Density of DS Spread Spectrum Signals Performance of DS/OPSK in Tone Interference DS Spread Spectrum on Frequency-Selective Fading Channels 9.5.1 RAKE Receiver Error Probability for DS CDMA on AWGN Channels 9.6.1 Standard Gaussian Approximation 9.6.2 Improved Gaussian Approximation 9.6.3 Simplified Gaussian Approximation TDMA CELLULAR ARCHITECTURES Cell Sectoring 10.1.1 Cell Sectoring with Wide-beam Directional Antennas 10.1.2 Sectoring with Switched-beam Antennas 10.1.3 Trunkpool Techniques 10.1.4 Cellular Performance with Switched-beam Antennas 10.1.4.1 Reverse Channel 10.1.4.2 Forward Channel 10.1.4.3 Performance Criteria and Results Conventional Cell Splitting 10.2.1 Reuse Partitioning 10.2.1.1 Cell Splitting with Reuse Partitioning Cluster Planned Hierarchical Architecture 10.3.1 System Architecture 10.3.2 Underlaid Microcell Planning Algorithm 10.3.3 Performance Analysis of Cluster Planned Architecture 10.3.3.1 Macrocell Performance 10.3.3.2 Microcell Performance 10.3.3.3 Adjacent Channel Interference Analysis Macrodiversity Architectures 10.4.1 Probability of Co-channel Interference Outage 10.4.2 Shadow Correlation 10.4.3 Numercial Examples 453 457 459 459 462 464 466 467 469 471 472 473 473 474 475 475 478 491 495 501 505 506 507 515 516 516 518 520 522 523 524 524 528 530 532 532 533 534 539 540 545 553 554 556 557 559 Contents xi 12. 13. 11.2 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 13.1 13.2 13.3 11. CDMA CELLULAR ARCHITECTURES 11.1 Capacity of Cellular CDMA 11.1.1 Reverse Link Capacity 11.1.2 Forward Link Capacity 11.1.3 Imperfect Power Control Error Probability with RAKE Reception 11.2.1 Maximal Ratio Combining LINK QUALITY MEASUREMENT AND HANDOFF INITIATION Signal Strength Based Hard Handoff Algorithms Pilot-to-interference Ratio Based Soft Handoff Algorithms Signal Strength Averaging 12.3.1 Choosing the Proper Window Length 12.3.2 Choosing the Proper Number of Samples to Average Velocity Estimation in Cellular Systems 12.4.1 Level Crossing Rate Estimators 12.4.2 Covariance Approximation Methods 12.4.3 Velocity Estimator Sensitivity 12.4.3.1 Effect of the Scattering Distribution 12.4.3.2 Effects of Additive Gaussian Noise Velocity Adaptive Handoff Algorithms 12.5.1 Effect of 12.5.2 Corner Effects and Sensitivity to a and 12.5.3 Velocity Adaptive Handoff Performance Hard Handoff Analysis 12.6.1 Simulation Results Soft Handoff Analysis 12.7.1 Simulation Results CIR-based Link Quality Measurements 12.8.1 Discrete-Time Model for Signal Quality Estimation 12.8.1.1 Estimation of (I+N) 12.8.1.2 Estimation of C/(I+N) 12.8.2 Training Sequence Based C/(I+N) Estimation Summary CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT TECHNIQUES Centralized DCA 13.1.1 Maximum Packing (MP) 13.1.2 MAXMIN Scheme Decentralized DCA 13.2.1 First Available (FA) and Nearest Neighbor (NN) 13.2.2 Dynamic Resource Acquisition (DRA) Fully Decentralized DCA 13.3.1 Channel Segregation (CS) 13.3.2 Channel Segregation with Variable Threshold 13.3.3 Minimum Interference (MI) Schemes 567 568 570 577 578 580 583 589 595 597 598 599 601 604 606 608 611 612 615 617 618 619 620 621 626 627 629 631 632 633 635 636 638 645 650 650 652 653 653 654 655 655 655 657 xii PRINCIPLES OFMOBILE COMMUNICATION SECOND EDITION 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10Example DCA Schemes for TDMA Systems 13.10.1 The Simple DCA (SDCA) Strategy 13.10.2 A Queueing DCA Strategy 13.10.3 An Aggressive DCA Strategy 13.10.4 Simulation Model, Results, and Discussion 13.11 Concluding Remarks A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4 A.5 13.3.4 Aggressive and Timid DCA Strategies Hybrid FCA/DCA Schemes Borrowing Schemes 13.5.1 Borrowing with Channel Ordering (BCO) 13.5.2 Borrowing with Directional Locking 13.5.3 Borrowing without Locking 13.5.4 Compact Pattern Based DCA Directed Retry and Directed Handoff Moving Direction Strategies Reduced Transceiver Coverage 13.8.1 Reuse Partitioning Handoff Priority Appendix A Probability and Random Processes Conditional Probability and Bayes’ Theorem Means, Moments, and Moment Generating Functions Some Useful Probability Distributions A.3.1 Discrete Distributions A.3.2 Continuous Distributions Upper Bounds on the cdfc Random Processes A.5.1 Moments and Correlation Functions A.5.2 Crosscorrelation and Crosscovariance A.5.3 Complex-Valued Random Processes A.5.4 Power Spectral Density A.5.5 Random Processes Filtered by Linear Systems A.5.6 Discrete-time Random Processes A.5.7 Cyclostationary Random Processes References Index 657 659 660 660 662 663 664 665 665 666 666 667 668 670 670 673 676 682 685 685 687 688 688 689 694 697 698 703 705 706 707 709 711 713 745