论文研究-旅游业与灾害：灾害事件对印尼1998-2016年旅游业发展的影响以及结构性方法的政策回应资源-CSDN文库

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Journal of Service Science and Management, 2019, 12, 93-115

http://www.scirp.org/journal/jssm

ISSN Online: 1940-9907

ISSN Print: 1940-9893

DOI:

10.4236/jssm.2019.122006 Feb. 1, 2019 93 Journal of Service Science

and Management

Tourism and Disasters: Impact of Disaster

Events on Tourism Development in Indonesia

1998-2016 and Structural Approach Policy

Responses

Erda Rindrasih , Patrick Witte, Tejo Spit, Annelies Zoomers

Department of Human Geography and Spatial Planning, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Abstract

Over the last two decades, disaster events have affected tourist destinations in

many countries around the world. Although disasters have attracted consi-

derable attention in academia, little attention has been paid to the impacts of

recurring disasters on the multiyear performance of the tourism industry in a

specific country. This paper discusses the relationship between the performance

of the tourism industry and disaster events and examines the spillover effects of

disasters on the tourism sector in Indonesia. It also highlights the Indonesian

policy responses in tourism following multiple disasters. The paper analyses the

multiyear (1998-2016) performance of the tourism industry using the variables

number of inbound tourists, national/regional income from tourism, and

hotel

room occupancy rates. Secondary data were collected from several sources, in-

cluding legal documents, Indonesia’s tourism statistics, media outlets and

newspapers articles. The results show that during the past 18 years, disasters

have affected the performance of the tourism industry differently in terms of

the scale of destruction, the location of disasters and the type of disasters (hu-

man vs. nature induced). The spillover effect between provinces has also been

captured from the data. Overall, this paper argues that in dealing with multiple

disasters over long periods of time, the continuation of regular tourism activi-

ties needs a structural approach in terms of policy responses.

Keywords

Impact, Disaster, Tourism, Spillover, Structural Approach

1. Introduction

Over the last two decades, many disasters have affected tourist destinations

How to cite this paper:

Rindrasih, E.,

Witte, P

., Spit, T. and Zoomers, A. (2019

)

Tourism and Disasters: Impact

of Disaster

Events on Tourism Development in Ind

nesia 1998

2016 and Structural Approach

Policy Responses

Journal of

Service

Science

and Management

, 93-115.

https://doi.org/10.4236/jssm.2019.12200

Received:

January 17, 2019

Accepted:

January 29, 2019

Published:

February 1, 2019

9 by author(s) and

Scientific

Research Publishing Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative

Commons Attribution International

License (CC BY

4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

E. Rindrasih et al.

DOI:

10.4236/jssm.2019.122006 94 Journal of Service Science

and Management

around the world. Events such as terrorist attacks and Hurricane Katrina in the

USA, the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic in Asian coun-

tries, the outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the UK, and the Indian Ocean

tsunami had an extensive adverse impact on international tourism [1]. Since the

tourism industry is an economic activity that is mostly influenced by the image

of the destination, negative images of a destination affect the performance of the

tourism industry. Despite such disasters, the tourism industry is continuing to

grow both locally and globally and is a major source of economic development

in many countries.

Some scholars view tourism from a complex systems approach [2]. To study

the impact of disaster on the performance of the tourism industry, it is essential

to define and conceptualize the interactions in the tourism system [2]. Moreo-

ver, it is important to examine the effects of each disaster event on the perfor-

mance of the tourism industry to better explore the relationship between disas-

ters and tourism. According to Faulkner [3] (p. 136): “… relatively little syste-

matic research has been carried out on disaster phenomena in tourism, the im-

pacts of such events on the tourism industry and the responses of industry and

relevant government agencies to cope with these impacts”. In other words, the

relation between the nature of disasters (both single and recurring events) and

the long-term impacts on the performance of the tourism industry could benefit

from more structural and systematic analyses and subsequent policy responses.

Research on the impact of disasters on the performance of the tourism indus-

try is relatively new. Although some important studies have shown the impacts

of disasters on tourism, the studies were often based on single event impacts,

relatively small areas and single destinations. For instance, hurricanes (e.g. Hig-

gins [4]), flooding and tsunamis (e.g. Calgaro & Lloyd [5]; Cheung & Law [6]),

earthquakes (e.g. Huang & Min [7]), volcanic eruptions (e.g. Carlino

et al.

[8])

and bushfires (e.g. Armstrong & Ritchie [9]). In addition, some studies focused

on non-natural disaster events, for example, foot and mouth disease in the UK

(e.g. Rodway-Dyer & Shaw [10]) or SARS in Asia (e.g. Au

et al.

[11]).

This aim of the present research was to understand the secondary impact of

several disaster events in Indonesia on the performance of the tourism industry

in 1998-2016. “Secondary” impact refers to consequences that “extend beyond

the people directly affected by the original hazard event or report” [12]. This

opens up the possibility to understand the impact of single events in one partic-

ular province or district on the performance of the tourism industry of a whole

country (bigger subsystem). Secondary impact can also be understood as both

the positive and the negative spillover effects on other regions. Thus, the follow-

ing research questions were addressed: 1) what is the impact of long-term mul-

ti-disaster events on the performance of the tourism industry in Indonesia, and

2) how does the government deal with this? Furthermore, this research would

like to contribute to the knowledge on the tourism development in relation to

disaster study.

E. Rindrasih et al.

DOI:

10.4236/jssm.2019.122006 95 Journal of Service Science

and Management

The following section discusses the conceptual framework on disasters in a

complex systems understanding of tourism and related spillover effects. Section

3 explains the methodology of the research. Section 4 presents the results of the

research, which include an inventory of the large-scale disaster events in Indo-

nesia from 1998 to 2016 and a discussion of the impacts of these disaster events

on the performance of the tourism industry, the spillover effects and the gov-

ernment’s responses. Section 5 discusses the findings. Finally, Section 6 presents

the conclusions and a recommendation for further research.

2. Literature Review: Complex System and Spillover Effect

2.1. Disasters in a Complex Systems Understanding of Tourism

Since tourism is often affected by external events beyond the control of individ-

uals or destinations, many scholars consider tourism an open system. However,

the majority of tourism crisis management frameworks consist of an orderly, li-

near sequence of steps. Therefore, the impact of crises has not been subject to an

in-depth examination that starts by acknowledging the tourism industry as a

complex system [2] [13] [14]. A simple, linear relationship and causal chain have

limited ability to explain complex phenomena in physical and social sciences

(including tourism), whereas a systems thinking approach can be applied to un-

derstand the complexity of tourism [15].

A complex systems understanding of tourism has been claimed to be a bet-

ter approach to answering questions about the components, the type of inte-

raction and the type of system [16]. This view is also discernible in later stu-

dies (e.g. Baggio [17]; Haugland

et al.

[18]), where authors agree that each

tourist destination has different types of systems, actors, characteristics and

behaviours. Thus, in understanding the relationship between tourism destina-

tions and disaster events, a complex systems understanding could be seen as

apposite to describe the social, economic and environmental dynamics of the

tourism industry.

In the literature, the words “crisis” and “disaster” have been often used inter-

changeably. Faulkner [3] defines a crisis as a self-inflicted event caused by prob-

lems, such as inept management structures and practices or a failure to adapt to

changes. A disaster has a different meaning: it refers to a situation in which an

enterprise (or a group of enterprises) is confronted with sudden unpredictable

and catastrophic changes over which it has little control [3].

Many authors have attempted to understand crises by examining their cha-

racteristics, lifecycles, anatomies, complexities and natures. Beeton [19] defines

crises based on the level of severity, while Coombs [20] defines the range of cris-

es in organizations based on scale, namely small-scale organizational issues (e.g.

staff illness), malevolence and large-scale issues (e.g. earthquakes, floods, terror-

ist incidents and fires). Parson [21] suggests three types of crises based on the

nature of their occurrence: immediate crises, where there is little or no warning

and organizations are unable to research the problem or prepare a plan before

E. Rindrasih et al.

DOI:

10.4236/jssm.2019.122006 96 Journal of Service Science

and Management

the crisis occurs; emerging crises, which are slow to develop and therefore orga-

nizational intervention may be able avert them; and sustained crises, which may

last for weeks, months or even years. These types of crises have similarities in the

need for intervention to stimulate recovery and the drive to implement some

structural changes after recovery.

Disasters may impact the tourism subsystem differently, which can be meas-

ured based on the scale of events and the capability of the system to deal with the

events depending on the nature of the crises. This means that there is an inter-

connection between tourism subsystems in which one subsystem will be affected

by disruptions in other subsystems. In tourism, the secondary impact of disaster

on the industry has mostly been measured using the spillover effect on other re-

gions and the impact after some period of time, rather than the direct impacts.

2.2. Spillover Effect of Disasters on the Tourism Industry

Spillover effects are mostly discussed in economic terms that explain both posi-

tive and negative externalities resulting from economic activity or processes that

affect any element not directly associated with the activity [22]. In tourism stu-

dies, spillover effects are translated into the indirect or intentional effect of tour-

ism flows on other regions that positively or negatively impact the performance

of other regions. Some non-tourism scholars have also highlighted the spillover

effects by using econometric analysis (e.g. Drakos and Kutan [23]; Goorochurn

and Hanley [24]; Neumayer [25]). Yang and Wong [22] argue that some inter-

pretations of spillover effects in previous studies are vague and that there is no

consensus on the definition of such effects.

The majority of studies on crises and disasters in the tourism industry focus

on a single crisis or disaster in one geographic location [26], and by doing so

overlook the spillover effect [27]. Nevertheless, Ritchie

et al.

[27] (p. 15) state:

“Data at this level,

i.e.

a particular crisis in one geographical location, may mask

micro differences and may not provide any insights into the spillover effects or

redistribution of demand”. From a geographical perspective, spillover effects can

be regarded as a spatial interaction among destinations in terms of tourism

flows. However, some studies (e.g. Gil-Pareja, Llorca-Vivero and Martinez-Serrano

[28]; Khadaroo and Seetanah [29]) focus only on a spatial interaction model be-

tween origin and destination without considering the neighbouring regions. This

paper highlights the spillover effects of a disaster event in one province on other

provinces to cover the geographical perspective of complex systems in the tour-

ism industry. A hypothesis, variables and analysis in specific case study area

were developed to meet the aims of the paper.

3. Methods

3.1. Variable and Analysis

Following a complex systems approach (e.g. Scott and Laws [2]), disaster events

in a tourist destination are assumed to impact the performance of the tourism

E. Rindrasih et al.

DOI:

10.4236/jssm.2019.122006 97 Journal of Service Science

and Management

industry in that country. The present research applied three statistical data as

variables to analyse the performance of the tourism industry: number of in-

bound tourists arrivals, hotel occupancy rate and income from tourism. Number

of inbound tourists arrivals and hotel occupancy rate reflect the tourism demand

[30]. The hotel occupancy rate was applied as a variable in this research to measure

the year on year growth or decline in overnight stays in all types of accommoda-

tion [31]. The indicator “income from tourism” was used to get a better over-

view of the performance of Indonesian tourism. This indicator has also been

used to measure competitiveness in tourism by World Economic Forum [32].

Table 1 presents the variables of the assessment. They are either increasing or

decreasing, and their dynamic was assessed to establish the tendency and possi-

ble relation with the events of the disaster at the time of analysis.

In addition to assessing the impact of disaster events on the performance of

Indonesia’s tourism industry, the present research also examined the govern-

ment’s general policy towards the problems that may arise due to disasters. The

policy data were gathered by examining published government documents.

3.2. Case Study and Data Gathering

Although there are good practices of using primary data in tourism research,

secondary data are also widely used [27]. In secondary data analysis, the re-

searcher has not participated in the planning of the data collection or the actual

collecting. Secondary data are usually gathered from published materials, such as

statistical data, journal articles, websites, records or reports [33]. Saunders

et al.

[34] state that secondary data can be regarded as a suitable data source for tour-

ism research because it is considered reliable and valid and can be used to ad-

dress the research question.

Three government-based boards—namely the National Disaster Management

Agency of Indonesia, Statistics Indonesia Board, and the Ministry of Tour-

ism—provided the secondary statistics data for this analysis. The disaster events

data were collected from the National Disaster Management Agency of Indone-

sia and various news media. Statistics Indonesia Board also provided data on in-

bound tourist arrivals and the hotel occupancy rate from a regular survey. Hence,

the data on income from tourism were gathered from the tourism statistics of the

Table 1. Variables for assessment framework of the tourism industry performance.

Variables of analysis

Explanation

Number of foreign

tourists (inbound

tourists arrivals)

The number of visitors from other countries entering Indonesia by air, water

and land. Indonesia has 93 gateways: 65 harbours, 24 international airports

and 4 border crossings. The major airports are Soekarno-Hatta (Jakarta),

Ngurah Rai (Bali), Polonia (Medan) and Sekupang (Batam).

Hotel occupancy rate

The average percentage of occupancy for hotels with a star rating and hotels

without a star rating

Income from tourism

The total amount of money earned from tourism activities

Source: Author’s framework.

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论文研究 - 旅游业与灾害：灾害事件对印尼1998-2016年旅游业发展的影响以及结构性方法的政策回应

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