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Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 2017, 9, 908-930

http://www.scirp.org/journal/jwarp

ISSN Online: 1945-3108

ISSN Print: 1945-3094

DOI: 10.4236/jwarp.2017.98061

July 3, 2017

An Inexpensive and Simple Experimental

Approach for the Estimation of Solute Import

into Groundwater and Subsequent Export

Using Inflow/Outflow Data

Velu Rasiah

Department of Environment & Resource Management, Mareeba, QLD, Australia

Abstract

In agricultural catchments where groundwater (GW) base

flow discharge

contributes substantially towards stream flow,

the information linking GW

inflow/outflow with contaminant import/export is scarce. However, this i

formation is essential to address aquatic ecosystem health hazard/risk assoc

ated with nitrate export and subsequent loading in sensitive surface water

bodies (SWB). The objectives of this study were to assess the temporal d

namics of (i) rain water inflow/outflow behaviour in three agricultural catc

ments in the humid tropics of far-northeast Queensland of Australia, (ii) so

ute import via inflow and subsequent export in outflow, and (iii) the associ

tion between GW inflow/outflow and solute import/export.

Approximately

71% of the average seasonal rainfall percolated (inflow) into the porous basa

tic regolith of the Johnstone River Catchment (JRC) compared with 44% into

the alluvial regolith in the Mulgrave River Catchment (MRC) and 29% into

the metamorphic regolith in the Tully River Catchment (TRC),

respectively.

The outflows from the basaltic, alluvial, and metamorphic regoliths were 56%

36%, and 55% of the inflows,

respectively. The cumulative nitrate import per

season was 25 k/ha in the JRC compared wi

th 11 kg/ha in MRC and 34 kg/ha

in TRC. The corresponding exports were 24 kg/ha, 8 kg/ha 26 kg/ha in JRC

MRC, and TRC,

respectively. The total dissolved solute (TDS) exports were

82%, 77%, 75%, of the corresponding imports in JRC, MRC, and TRC, respe

tively. Simple correlations indicated that nitrate export was positively corr

lated with the outflow in each one of the regolith and similar trends were o

served between inflow and import. The import/export mass balance for n

trate shows that 73% to 96% of the

imports were exported during the same

rainy season,

suggesting the potential for nitrate associated ecosystem health

hazard/risk in sensitive SWB receiving the outflows.

How to cite this paper:

Rasiah, V. (2017

)

An Inexpensive and Simple Experimental

Approach for the Estimation of Solute

Import into Groundwater and Subsequent

Export Using Inflow/Outflow

Data.

Journal

of Water Resource and Protection

, 908-

930

https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2017.98061

Received:

May 29, 2017

Accepted:

June 30, 2017

Published:

July 3, 2017

7 by author and

Scientific

Research Publishing Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative

Commons Attribution International

License (CC BY

4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

V. Rasiah

909

Keywords

Groundwater, Inflow/Outflow, Solute Import/Export,

Nitrate,

Total Dissolved

Solutes (TDS/EC)

1. Introduction

In water balance models, solute import/export at different scales ranging from

point measurement to catchment scale in space over-time into and out from

groundwater (GW) is usually linked to inflows into and outflows from aquifers

[1]-[8]. Of particular importance with regard to point measurement, outflow

and solute export are GW-head [3], temperature-time series [7], and recharge an

discharge [5]. However, these workers have indicated that model outputs may be

less reliable, particularly in situations where the information in the aforemen-

tioned major variables listed in [1]-[8] is scarce. Furthermore, reliable informa-

tion in GW inflow/outflow is particularly important in situations where GW

base flow discharges contribute substantially towards the total annual flow in

streams, carrying nutrient contaminants such as N and P, and pesticides dis-

charge the flows into sensitive surface water bodies (SWB) [4]-[11].

Nitrate export from GW under intensively cultivated agricultural catchments

in northeast humid tropics of Queensland, Australia, and the subsequent loading

in SWB, particularly the UN listed World Heritage Great Barrier Reef (GBR), is

a major aquatic ecosystem health hazard/risk [12] [13] in this region. The export

in surface runoff from agricultural catchments to the GBR has been fairly well

documented but that from the GW base flow discharge has received limited at-

tention [12] [13]. The limitations are partially attributed to the complexities in-

volved in characterizing and quantifying GW inflow/outflow from point mea-

surement extrapolated to larger scale and over-time [3] [6] [7] [8] [9]. Coupling

GW inflow/outflow with solute import/export spatiotemporally may help to at

least partially resolve the issues mentioned above, however, to my knowledge,

such coupling information is scarce.

Conceptually, there are two approaches to experimentally quantify GW in-

flow/outflow and link it with solute import/export. Logically and intuitively the

most appropriate would be to quantify each and every component of GW in-

flow/outflow and solute import/export processes, listed as major variables con-

trolling these processes in [1]-[8], to increase the confidence level. Briefly, the

major variables to quantify the inflow/outflow are the vertical, both upward and

downward, and lateral discharge of GW and solutes, solute adsorption/desorp-

tion, mineralization/degradation/decomposition reactions, solute (nutrient) up-

take by crops and recycling, regolith dissolution and atmospheric deposition.

This approach is too expensive, laborious, and time consuming to undertake si-

multaneously to address all the issues at field scale, and to my knowledge, such

information based on experimental data from a single study is scarce to nil. Al-

ternately, the changes in watertable levels between consecutive monitoring, im-

V. Rasiah

910

plying between a given inflow and the outflow that immediately follows the in-

flow, and the corresponding changes in solute concentrations (import/export)

may be considered as an approximation to account for the aforementioned bio-

physical-chemical processes/reactions outlined in the first approach. This ap-

proach is relatively simple, low-tech and cost effective, compared with the first

approach, while not jeopardizing the accuracy and reliability. Therefore, this

study is based on the second approach, where the specific objectives are to assess

the temporal dynamics of (i) rain water inflow/outflow behaviour in three con-

tiguous agricultural catchments in the humid tropics of far-northeast Queen-

sland of Australia, (ii) solute import via inflow and subsequent export in outflow,

and (iii) the association between GW inflow/outflow and solute import/export.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Catchment

2.1.1. Johnstone River Catchment

The Johnstone River Catchment (JRC) is approximately 1634 km

in area and is

located between 17˚30'S and 145˚50'E in northeast Queensland, Australia

(

Figure 1). Pristine rainforest covers ≈ 50% of the mountains and hills of the

catchment, pasture 28% (both dairy and beef) at midslopes, 12% sugarcane and

8% banana at the lower aspects in landscape [12] [13]. The major rivers in the

catchment are the North and South Johnstone Rivers, both of which rise in the

south-eastern section at 740 m elevation, pass through large areas of native

rainforest in the midsection of the catchment and drain the undulating lowlands

and floodplain of the lower catchment. The rivers converge in an estuary in In-

nisfail which discharges water into the Great Barrier Reef.

The basaltic regolith in the catchment is highly weathered and stratified con-

tiguously, and ranges in thickness from 50 to 120 m [14]. The stratification can

lead to complex subsurface flow paths, but this aspect has received little research

attention. The topography is generally undulating and the GW flow generally

follows the topography and surface drainage features [14]. Water transmissivity

in the basalts can range from 17 to 3500 m

/d and values greater than 500 m

are often associated with vesicular basalt or highly weathered scoria aquifers [14].

The major cultivated soil types belong to the Ferrosols soil order [15] [16] as did

the soil at the study site. The Ferrosols profiles are deep, red to brown, acidic,

well-structured clay soils and include the soil series formed in-situ (Pin Gin and

those formed on from alluvium derived from basalt). The saturated hydraulic

conductivity in the top 0 - 0.1 m is relatively high, ranging from 5.1 m/d to 17.1

m/d, and is 0.14 m/d to 0.27 m/d at a depth of between 0.5 and 1.0 m [14].

2.1.2. Mulgrave River Catchment

The Mulgrave River Catchment (MRC) is located between 17˚01' and 17˚24'S

and between 145˚37' and 145˚58'E, covering an area of 1983 km

in north east

Queensland, Australia (

Figure 1). Approximately 12% of the catchment is under

intensively cultivated sugarcane, 3% grazing, 17% timber reserve, and 57% in the

V. Rasiah

912

Wet Tropics World Heritage Area [17]. The major river in the catchment is

Mulgrave River.

The regolith in this catchment is mostly quaternary alluvium resulting from

hundreds of thousands of years of sedimentary depositions [14] [15] [17]. The

deposits vary in thickness from 45 m to 100 m with coarser sands generally lo-

cated between 15 m and 45 m below the surface. At the study site, the top 12 m

regolith is vertically stratified showing varying mixtures of clay/silt/sand at 0 - 4

m depth and mostly mottled clay at depths > 4 m. The lateral stratification from

up-to down-slope ranged from clay/silt/sand mix to gravel/sand mix. Published

information on sub-surface soil hydraulic properties are scarce to nil, except for

the unpublished work of [14] who reported the cumulative percolation during

rainy season can be greater than 700 mm/yr.

The majority of soils under sugarcane in MRC, including that at the experi-

mental site, are alluvial acidic drystrophic brown dermosol characterized by 43%

- 44% clay, 30% - 32% silt, 23% - 24% sand, in the top 0.20 m [9] [14]. The pH of

these soils in the top 0.1 m was 5.4, 0.6 mg/kg organic C, and 1.9 cmol

/kg cation

exchange capacity.

2.1.3. Tully River Catchment

The Tully River Catchment (TRC) is located between 17˚30'S and 18˚30'S lati-

tude and at 14˚6'E longitude, covering an area of 1683 km

in northeast Queen-

sland of Australia (

Figure 1). The major river systems in the catchment are the

Tully River and Murray River which discharge into the GBR lagoon. The topo-

graphy ranges from precipitous mountains to depositional plains [18]. Approx-

imately 20% - 23% of the total area is under agricultural activities.

The cultivated soils in this catchment were formed in-situ from the meta-

morphic parent rocks that form the mountains in this area. The hydro-geologi-

cal information is very scarce for this catchment [18]. The soil type at the expe-

rimental site is brown Dermosol, characterised by high clay content, ranging

from 62% to 68%, and the clay mineral is predominantly 1:1 kaolinite [18]. Only

one soil of basaltic origin has been mapped out so far, although many of the fans

are of mixed basaltic granitic origin.

2.2. Groundwater Monitoring and Sampling

2.2.1. Piezometer Wells

The piezometer wells (simply the “wells”) used in this study to monitor waterta-

ble levels and water sampling in the three catchments were installed in mid-

1990’s to early-mid-2000 for other studies. In the JRC they were installed along a

≈380 m long transect at up- , mid- and down-slope positions. The downslope

wells were approximately 25 m away from the nearby creek. At the MRC the

wells were installed in a similar fashion along a 650 m transect, where the down-

slope wells were ≈40 m away from the nearby creek. The wells in the TRC were

arranged in a triangular fashion at ≈50 m apart and the nearest stream was the

main field drain, draining ≈300 ha of banana crop, ≈1 km away from the wells.

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