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American Journal of Plant Sciences, 2017, 8, 2040-2055

http://www.scirp.org/journal/ajps

ISSN Online: 2158-2750

ISSN Print: 2158-2742

DOI:

10.4236/ajps.2017.89137 Aug. 4, 2017 2040 American Journal of Plant Sciences

Planting Date, Seeding Rate, and Cultivar

Impact Agronomic Traits and Semolina

of Durum Wheat

Shana M. Forster

, Joel K. Ransom

, Frank A. Manthey

, John R. Rickertsen

, Grant H. Mehring

North Central Research Extension Center, North Dakota State University, Minot, ND, USA

Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA

Hettinger Research Extension Center, North Dakota State University, Hettinger, ND, USA

Abstract

Durum wheat (

Triticum durum

Desf

.) is a market class of wheat subject to

price discounts in the marketplace if quality standards are not met. This study

was conducted in order to determine how certain agronomic practices might

impact durum wheat quality. The effects of planting date (PD)

, cultivar, and

seeding rate on agronomic and semolina quality traits were investigated in

field trials conducted near Hettinger and Minot, ND in 2014 and 2015. The

interaction of PD and cultivar was significant for many of the traits evaluated.

There was

a significant PD X cultivar interaction or PD and cultivar effect for

yield in all environments. Planting date X cultivar interacted for test weight at

all environments. In general, a delay in PD resulted in a significant decrease in

yield and test weight

for all cultivars. However, Carpio yielded more than

other cultivars in high yielding environments while the yield and test weight

of Joppa was more adversely affected by delays in PD. Seeding rate did not

have a consistent effect on any agronomic or quali

ty trait. Protein content,

kernel yellow pigment content, falling number (FN), and vitreous kernels

were more dependent on cultivar, regardless of PD and environment. Sem

lina extraction, gluten index (GI), and wet gluten (WG) values tended to d

crease wit

h a delay in PD. These data continue to support cultivar selection as

a critical component for obtaining high-yielding, high-

quality durum wheat.

However, PD and environment can impact certain agronomic and end-

use

traits, regardless of cultivar grown.

Keywords

Durum Wheat, Durum Quality, Planting Date, Seeding Rate, Semolina,

Grain Protein

How to cite this paper:

Forster, S.M., Ran-

som

, J.K., Manthey, F.A., Rickertsen, J.

and

Mehring, G.H. (2017)

Planting Date,

Seeding Rate, and Cultivar Impact Agr

nomic

Traits and Semolina of Durum Wheat.

American Journal of Plant Sciences

2040

-2055.

https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2017.89137

Received:

July 3, 2017

Accepted:

August 1, 2017

Published:

August 4, 2017

7 by authors and

Scientific

Research Publishing Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative

Commons Attribution International

License (CC BY

4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

S. M. Forster et al.

DOI:

10.4236/ajps.2017.89137 2041 American Journal of Plant Sciences

1. Introduction

Durum wheat is a market class of wheat commonly grown in North Dakota with

an average yield of 2700 kg∙ha

−1

[1]. Recently, durum wheat production in ND

has declined due to competition for acres with hard red spring wheat (HRSW)

(

Triticum aestivum

L.) which is generally less vulnerable to quality discounts.

Producers, seed companies, grain buyers, grain millers, the pasta industry, and

consumers evaluate durum wheat quality from different perspectives, but it is

primarily grown for producing high-quality pasta [2]. Many production and en-

vironmental factors impact the quality of harvested durum wheat. Optimal

planting date and selection of cultivars with favorable stress responses are agro-

nomic management factors that can maximize durum wheat yield and quality

[3].

Durum wheat grades are determined by the Federal Grain Inspection Service

(FGIS) and the USDA Grain Inspection, Packers, and Stockyards Administra-

tion. Grades are important to the final market price and determined based on

quality factors with subclasses within grades of durum wheat marketed based on

the percentage of vitreous kernels. The majority of the 2014 durum wheat crop

was US subclass grade amber durum (AD), while the 2015 crop was US grade 1

hard amber durum (HAD) [4] [5]. Essentially, HAD has a minimum test weight

of 772 kg∙m

−3

, less than 2% damaged kernels, and has a maximum limit of 0.4%

foreign material, 3% broken kernels and defects, and 75% or more hard vitreous

kernels [5]. Disease and mishandling of grain can cause damaged and broken

kernels which can lower test weight. Grain kernels are considered hard vitreous

because of high protein content and the absence of proteins that interact with

starch granules [6].

The ability of a producer to maximize yield is an economic concern. One fac-

tor for producing high-quality durum wheat is cultivar grown [7]. Planting date

and seeding rate of durum wheat can vary widely based on individual producers

and environmental conditions. These choices also might impact the quality of

harvested grain due to the environmental conditions during grain filling and

harvest and are somewhat dependent on PD [8].

Breeding programs in the U.S. and Canada have as primary objectives the

identification of cultivars with higher yield potential, better disease resistance

profiles, and better end-use quality [9] [10] [11]. Unfortunately, durum wheat

quality in recent years in ND has been regularly impacted by Fusarium head

blight (FHB or scab) caused by

Fusarium graminearum

Schwabe [12] and most

of the quality discounts associated with FHB are due to the presence of a patho-

gen-produced mycotoxin in the grain called deoxynivalinol (DON). Fungicide

applications are essential due to limited genetic resistance in current durum

wheat cultivars to FHB [13] [14] and are only partially effective in reducing

DON levels when the FHB pressure is high.

Yield response due to N-P-fertilization was significantly higher for early and

medium seeding dates than for the late seeding date for hard red spring and

S. M. Forster et al.

DOI:

10.4236/ajps.2017.89137 2042 American Journal of Plant Sciences

durum wheat [15]. Additionally, the seeding date X N-P-fertilization interaction

was significant and indicated a decreasing response to fertilization with delayed

planting. Seeding date did not significantly impact grain protein or test weight of

durum wheat. Additionally, durum wheat yield in India was greatest at normal

seeding dates and with increasing N and irrigation [16]. Flour characteristics

such as grain protein content, ß-carotene content, and sedimentation value were

highest for the latest planting date. A genotype X N input interaction was ob-

served for several characteristics of early sown durum wheat and was also

present in the optimum and late PD for grain yield [8].

Seeding rate trials to determine the optimum rate to maximize yield have been

previously conducted in ND. However, many of these trials were conducted with

cultivars no longer grown. Based on data, early PDs with seeding rates between

84 and 100 kg∙ha

−1

optimized grain yield and quality [17]. Yield of hard red

spring and durum wheat was maximized at 247 plants m

−2

, but only when yield

potential was greater than the 1970s average yield of 2350 kg∙ha

−1

[18]. More re-

cently, test weight and protein were not impacted by a change in seeding rate

across locations in north eastern ND [19]. A seeding rate of at least 141 kg∙ha

−1

viable seeds was suggested to optimize yield. Seeding rate could impact grain

yield by increasing the number of spikes per area. Post-heading N accumulation

and N remobilization were highest at a seeding rate of 400 seeds m

−2

[20]. Seed-

ing rate had a significant effect on HRSW yield in Canada [21]. Increasing yield

was a function of more spikes produced due to more plants established; the til-

lering ability of a cultivar did not compensate for inadequate plant stands. Addi-

tionally, 12 HRSW cultivars evaluated for optimal seeding rate in eastern ND

and MN found that when averaged across environments the highest yield was

obtained at 350 seeds m

−2

, and subsequent regression analysis found that the

predicted optimum rate to be 360 seeds m

−2

[22].

Durum wheat genotypes responded differently to planting date and N rate

when grown at three planting dates in California, USA, but no genotype consis-

tently ranked the best across PDs [23]. Planting date also impacted semolina and

pasta quality due to environmental changes during grain filling. Increased pro-

tein content observed in later sown durum wheat was suggested as a reason for

increased dough strength [24]. These authors also observed a decrease in GI

when planting was delayed and proposed that temperatures higher than 30˚C

during grain filling might affect the gluten polymerization process. In a similar

study, GI increased as temperatures rose to 30˚C and then decreased under

higher temperatures [25]. In addition, spaghetti cooked firmness and protein

content were positively correlated, but independent of planting date. As a result

of this study, these researchers suggested that later PD might be a way of in-

creasing pasta cooking quality by increasing overall protein.

The research reported herein was conducted in order to determine how PD,

cultivar, and seeding rate impact agronomic traits and semolina and will enable

recommendations to be developed which will aid durum wheat producers.

S. M. Forster et al.

DOI:

10.4236/ajps.2017.89137 2043 American Journal of Plant Sciences

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Growing Conditions and Plant Materials

Experiments were conducted in 2014 and 2105 near Hettinger (46˚00'40''N,

102˚38'40''W) and Minot (48˚10'55''N, 101˚17'46''W), ND. The soil types at each

location were a Shambo- and an Aastad-loam in Hettinger and Minot, respec-

tively [26]. Experiments at both locations were seeded directly into the stubble

from the previous year using a no-till plot seeder. In Minot, the previous crops

were flax (

Linum usitatissimum

L.) and field pea (

Pisum sativum

L.) in 2014 and

2015, respectively. The previous crops in Hettinger were HRSW and lentil (

Lens

culinaris

Medik) in 2014 and 2015, respectively. Experimental units were 10.7

−2

(1.6 m wide × 6.7 m long) and 11.6 m

−2

(1.52 × 7.6 m) in Hettinger and Mi-

not, respectively. Row spacing was 17.8 cm at both locations. All plots were

maintained using best management practices using appropriate pest control

practices for the region [7] and fertilized with N-P based on yield potential and

soil test results listed in

Table 1. All soil tests were conducted by the North Da-

kota State University (NDSU) Soil Testing Laboratory, Fargo, ND using ap-

proved and standard practices. A plot combine harvester with a 1.52 m wide

head was utilized to harvest durum wheat in experimental units when grain

moisture was near 13% (

Table 2).

The durum wheat cultivars, Carpio, Divide, and Joppa, evaluated in this expe-

riment were developed by the NDSU durum wheat breeding program and re-

leased by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station [10] [27] [28]. Di-

vide was selected because it was grown on the largest area in ND for the previous

seven consecutive years, accounting for 30% of the acreage in 2015 [4]. Joppa

and Carpio were selected based on their recent availability to ND producers and

excellent end-use qualities. Seeding rates were determined based on current

recommendations and producer practices [7].

Table 1. Soil factors measured prior to planting near hettinger and minot, ND in 2014

and 2015.

Environment

Depth

(cm)

-N

(kg∙ha

−1

)

(mg∙kg

−1

)

(mg∙kg

−1

)

(%)

(mg∙kg

−1

)

(mg∙kg

−1

)

(mg∙kg

−1

)

Hettinger

2014 0 - 15 34 33 345 6.0 2.8 0.88 75 3.5

15 - 30

27 7 175 7.3 2.4 0.32 25 9.0

2015 0 - 15 81 35 625 6.4 3.8 2.17 64 10.6

15 - 30

34 8 200 7.0 2.6 0.37 24 13.9

Minot

2014 0 - 15 138 18 365 4.4 3.2 0.74 86 32.9

15 - 30

28 2 167 6.0 2.2 0.20 35 59.1

2015 0 - 15 88 13 310 5.9 3.7 1.23 62 26.3

15 - 30

20 4 410 6.7 2.4 0.39 32 22.2

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