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微电子学是研究、设计和制造微小电子器件与电路的科学和技术，它在近几十年来彻底改变了我们的生活。自微电子学领域的诞生以来，许多曾经几乎不可能实现的科技产品，比如手机、数字相机、笔记本电脑等，现在都已成为日常生活中不可或缺的部分。学习微电子不仅能让我们了解每一个电子器件的工作原理，还能让我们欣赏到微电子产品的复杂性和功能性。微电子学基础的知识点涵盖了从微电子设备的基本功能到复杂的系统集成的各个方面。微电子学与传统电子学的区别在于，微电子学着重于在单个芯片上集成大量的晶体管，从而实现了更高的集成度和更小的体积。传统的电子学领域大约始于一百年前，主要应用于两次世界大战期间的无线电和雷达通讯。最初的电子设备使用的是“真空管”，这是一种在真空中通过板间电子流动来实现放大的器件。然而，真空管的有限使用寿命和较大的体积催生了对新型电子器件的研究，于是晶体管应运而生，它具有几乎无限长的理论使用寿命，并且比真空管小得多。微电子学的历史始于20世纪60年代，当时科学家们开始尝试将多个晶体管集成在一个芯片上。最初的集成电路（IC）只包含有限数量的元件，但技术的进步迅速推动了集成电路复杂度的增加。现在，一台微处理器大约可以在一个3平方厘米的芯片上集成约一亿个晶体管。这让人难以想象，如果没有集成电路，要制造一个包含一亿个分立晶体管的处理器需要占用多少空间。正是微电子学的发展使得这些设备的体积得以大大缩小，功能得以大幅增强。微电子学不仅关注单个晶体管或集成电路的设计与制造，还包括了对整个电子系统级别的分析。例如，教材《Fundamentals of Microelectronics》中提到的例子包括电子设备系统，它们利用了微电子学中的重要电路功能。书中还对基础电路理论进行了回顾，以帮助读者温故知新。基础电路理论是微电子学的基础，包括电子学的基本概念和定律，比如欧姆定律、基尔霍夫定律等，它们描述了电路中电压、电流和电阻之间的关系。这些理论是设计任何电子设备和电路所必需的。随着学习的深入，我们还会接触到更高级的概念，例如模拟与数字信号处理、放大器、振荡器、电源转换器和微处理器等。微电子学是一个不断发展的领域，随着半导体技术的不断进步，器件的尺寸变得越来越小，性能却越来越强。纳米技术和量子效应在微电子器件设计和制造中的应用正逐渐成为新的研究热点。微电子技术的进步使得新型传感器、计算设备、通信系统以及无数其他类型的电子设备得以实现，为人们的生活提供了便捷，并推动了科技产业的蓬勃发展。

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BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 1 (1)

Introduction to Microelectronics

Over the past ﬁve decades, microelectronics has revolutionized our lives. While beyond the realm

of possibility a few decades ago, cellphones, digital cameras, laptop computers, and many other

electronic products have now become an integral part of our daily affairs.

Learning microelectronics can be fun. As we learn how each device operates, how devices

comprise circuits that perform interesting and useful functions, and how circuits form sophisti-

cated systems, we begin to see the beauty of microelectronics and appreciate the reasons for its

explosive growth.

This chapter gives an overview of microelectronics so as to provide a context for the material

presented in this book. We introduce examples of microelectronic systems and identify important

circuit “functions” that they employ. We also provide a review of basic circuit theory to refresh

the reader’s memory.

1.1 Electronics versus Microelectronics

The general area of electronics began about a century ago and proved instrumental in the radio

and radar communications used during the two world wars. Early systems incorporated “vacuum

tubes,” amplifying devices that operated with the ﬂow of electrons between plates in a vacuum

chamber. However, the ﬁnite lifetime and the large size of vacuum tubes motivated researchers

to seek an electronic device with better properties.

The ﬁrst transistor was invented in the 1940s and rapidly displaced vacuum tubes. It exhibited

a very long (in principle, inﬁnite) lifetime and occupied a much smaller volume (e.g., less than 1

in packaged form) than vacuum tubes did.

But it was not until 1960s that the ﬁeld of microelectronics, i.e., the science of integrating

many transistors on one chip, began. Early “integrated circuits” (ICs) contained only a handful

of devices, but advances in the technology soon made it possible to dramatically increase the

complexity of “microchips.”

Example 1.1

Today’s microprocessors contain about 100 million transistors in a chip area of approximately



cm. (The chip is a few hundred microns thick.) Suppose integrated circuits were not

invented and we attempted to build a processor using 100 million “discrete” transistors. If each

device occupies a volume of 3 mm



mm, determine the minimum volume for the

processor. What other issues would arise in such an implementation?

Solution

The minimum volume is given by 27 mm



, i.e., a cube 1.4 m on each side! Of course, the

BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 2 (1)

2 Chap. 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

wires connecting the transistors would increase the volume substantially.

In addition to occupying a large volume, this discrete processor would be extremely slow;the

signals would need to travel on wires as long as 1.4 m! Furthermore, if each discrete transistor

costs 1 cent and weighs 1 g, each processor unit would be priced at one million dollars and weigh

100 tons!

Exercise

How much power would such a system consume if each transistor dissipates 10



This book deals with mostly microelectronics while providing sufﬁcient foundation for gen-

eral (perhaps discrete) electronic systems as well.

1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems

At this point, we introduce two examples of microelectronic systems and identify some of the

important building blocks that we should study in basic electronics.

1.2.1 Cellular Telephone

Cellular telephones were developed in the 1980s and rapidly became popular in the 1990s. To-

day’s cellphones contain a great deal of sophisticated analog and digital electronics that lie well

beyond the scope of this book. But our objective here is to see how the concepts described in this

book prove relevant to the operation of a cellphone.

Suppose you are speaking with a friend on your cellphone. Your voice is converted to an elec-

tric signal by a microphone and, after some processing, transmitted by the antenna. The signal

produced by your antenna is picked up by the your friend’s receiver and, after some processing,

applied to the speaker [Fig. 1.1(a)]. What goes on in these black boxes? Why are they needed?

Microphone

Speaker

Transmitter (TX)

(a) (b)

Receiver (RX)

Figure 1.1 (a) Simpliﬁed view of a cellphone, (b) further simpliﬁcation of transmit and receive paths.

Let us attempt to omit the black boxes and construct the simple system shown in Fig. 1.1(b).

How well does this system work? We make two observations. First, our voice contains frequen-

cies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz (called the “voice band”).Second, for an antenna to operate efﬁciently,

i.e., to convert most of the electrical signal to electromagnetic radiation, its dimension must be a

signiﬁcant fraction (e.g.,

25%

) of the wavelength. Unfortunately, a frequency range of 20 Hz to

20 kHz translates to a wavelength



mto



m, requiring gigantic antennas

for each cellphone. Conversely, to obtain a reasonable antenna length, e.g., 5 cm, the wavelength

must be around 20 cm and the frequency around 1.5 GHz.

Recall that the wavelength is equal to the (light) velocity divided by the frequency.

BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 3 (1)

Sec. 1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 3

How do we “convert”the voice band to a gigahertz center frequency?One possible approachis

to multiply the voice signal,

(

)

, by a sinusoid,

cos(2

f

)

[Fig. 1.2(a)]. Since multiplication

in the time domain corresponds to convolution in the frequency domain, and since the spectrum

t tt

(

)

Output Waveform

(

)

+20 kHz

−20 kHz

−

Spectrum of Cosine

−

Output Spectrum

(a)

(b)

cos( 2 )

Voice

Signal

Voice

Spectrum

Figure 1.2 (a) Multiplication of a voice signal by a sinusoid, (b) equivalent operation in the frequency

domain.

of the sinusoid consists of two impulses at



, the voice spectrum is simply shifted (translated)



[Fig. 1.2(b)]. Thus, if

GHz, the output occupies a bandwidth of 40 kHz centered

at 1 GHz. This operation is an example of “amplitude modulation.”

We therefore postulate that the black box in the transmitter of Fig. 1.1(a) contains a

multiplier,

as depicted in Fig. 1.3(a). But two other issues arise. First, the cellphone must deliver

(a) (b)

Power

Amplifier

cos( 2 )

Oscillator

Figure 1.3 (a) Simple transmitter, (b) more complete transmitter.

a relatively large voltage swing (e.g., 20

) to the antenna so that the radiated power can reach

across distances of several kilometers, thereby requiring a “power ampliﬁer” between the mul-

tiplier and the antenna. Second, the sinusoid,

cos 2

f

, must be produced by an “oscillator.”

We thus arrive at the transmitter architecture shown in Fig. 1.3(b).

Let us now turn our attention to the receive path of the cellphone, beginning with the sim-

ple realization illustrated in Fig. 1.1(b). Unfortunately, This topology fails to operate with the

principle of modulation: if the signal received by the antenna resides around a gigahertz center

frequency, the audio speaker cannot produce meaningful information. In other words, a means of

Cellphones in fact use other types of modulation to translate the voice band to higher frequencies.

Also called a “mixer” in high-frequency electronics.

BR Wiley/Razavi/Fundamentals of Microelectronics [Razavi.cls v. 2006] June 30, 2007 at 13:42 4 (1)

4 Chap. 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

translating the spectrum back to zero center frequency is necessary. For example, as depicted in

Fig. 1.4(a), multiplication by a sinusoid,

cos(2

f

)

, translates the spectrum to left and right by

−

Spectrum of Cosine

Output Spectrum

(a)

−

−2

(b)

oscillator

Low−Pass

Filter

oscillator

Low−Pass

Filter

Amplifier

Low−Noise

Amplifier

(c)

Received Spectrum

Figure 1.4 (a) Translation of modulated signal to zero center frequency, (b) simple receiver, (b) more

complete receiver.

, restoring the original voice band. The newly-generated components at



can be removed

by a low-pass ﬁlter. We thus arrive at the receiver topology shown in Fig. 1.4(b).

Our receiver design is still incomplete. The signal received by the antenna can be as low as

a few tens of microvolts whereas the speaker may require swings of several tens or hundreds

of millivolts. That is, the receiver must provide a great deal of ampliﬁcation (“gain”) between

the antenna and the speaker. Furthermore, since multipliers typically suffer from a high “noise”

and hence corrupt the received signal, a “low-noise ampliﬁer” must precede the multiplier. The

overall architecture is depicted in Fig. 1.4(c).

Today’s cellphones are much more sophisticated than the topologies developed above. For

example, the voice signal in the transmitter and the receiver is applied to a digital signal processor

(DSP) to improve the quality and efﬁciencyof the communication. Nonetheless, our study reveals

some of the fundamental building blocks of cellphones, e.g., ampliﬁers, oscillators, and ﬁlters,

with the last two also utilizing ampliﬁcation. We therefore devote a great deal of effort to the

analysis and design of ampliﬁers.

Having seen the necessity of ampliﬁers, oscillators, and multipliers in both transmit and re-

ceive paths of a cellphone, the reader may wonder if “this is old stuff” and rather trivial compared

to the state of the art. Interestingly, these building blocks still remain among the most challenging

circuits in communication systems. This is because the design entails critical trade-offs between

speed (gigahertz center frequencies), noise, power dissipation (i.e., battery lifetime), weight, cost

(i.e., price of a cellphone), and many other parameters. In the competitive world of cellphone

manufacturing, a given design is never “good enough” and the engineers are forced to further

push the above trade-offs in each new generation of the product.

1.2.2 Digital Camera

Another consumer product that, by virtue of “going electronic,” has dramatically changed our

habits and routines is the digital camera. With traditional cameras, we received no immediate

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