The expanded edition begins with debates over definitions of science. Next, possible precursors to science are treated in the forms of knowledge prehistoric societies and theories about the notions of truth that would apply in such cultures. The section about Egyptian and Babylonian science starts with the differences in their types of arithmetic. Lindberg states that the Babylonian notation is superior because of its greater parsimony. Babylonian astrology, with the important development of horoscopic astrology, is mentioned as a major contribution of Babylonian civilization. Egyptian and Babylonian medicine are described as systemizations of diagnoses, which often included non-naturalistic formulations.
