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Modeling the encoding structure and spatial resolution of

photon counting imagers with Vernier anode readout

Hao Yang (杨颢)

*, Baosheng Zhao (赵宝升)

, Qiurong Yan (鄢秋荣)

and Yong’an Liu (刘永安)

Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Optical Information Technology, School of Science, Northwestern

Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China

State Key Labor atory of Transient Optics and Photonics, Xi’an Institute of Optics and Precision Mechanics,

Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi’an 710119, China

Department of Electronic Information Engineering, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China

*Corresponding author: yhao@nwpu.edu.cn

Received August 25, 2016; accepted November 8, 2016; posted online November 30, 2016

We present the spatial resolution estimation methods for a photon counting system with a Vernier anode.

A limiting resolution model is provided according to discussions of surface encoding structure and quantized

noise. The limiting resolution of a Vernier anode is revealed to be significantly higher than that of a microchannel

plate. The relationship between the actual spatial resolution and equivalent noise charge of a detector is estab-

lished by noise analysis and photon position reconstruction. The theoretical results are demonstrated to be in

good agreement with the experimental results for a 1.2 mm pitch Vernier anode.

OCIS codes: 110.3010, 030.5260, 040.7480.

doi: 10.3788/COL201614.121102.

Position

[1–4]

and arrival time

[5–8]

recordings of single pho-

tons can be achieved by photon counting detection, which

realizes ultra-weak radiation imaging with high spatial

and time resolutions. Thus, photon counting imagers have

been widely used in many important fields such as space

detection, astrono my, biomedicine, nuclear physics, quan-

tum key distribution (QKD), photon counting micros-

copy, etc.

[8–13]

. The previous work from Lapington et al.

reported a Vernier-based imager with a spatial resolution

of ∼10 μm FWHM result, near to the pore size of micro-

channel plates (MCPs), which reveals that a Vernier

structure determined spatial resolution can exceed the

limit of an MCP pore size by structure optimization

and reado ut noise suppression

[14,15]

. However, the relation-

ship between spatial resolution and the anode encoding

structure with or without readout noise is still unclear.

In other words, the estimation models of the limiting

resolution determined by the encoding structure and

the actual spatial resolution determined by readout noise

are not established.

In this Letter, we provide the estimation methods of the

limiting resolution and the actual spatial resolution.

The influence factors of spatial resolution (including the

limiting and actual resolutions) have been analyzed.

The limiting resolution model is deduced by calculations

of the encoding structure and the charge cloud on a Ver-

nier anode. The inner relationship between the actual spa-

tial resolution and the normalized noise characterized by

the equivalent noise charge (ENC) has been revealed

within a low noise range by noise analysis during the de-

coding process. The influence mechanism of the noise and

anode structure on spatial resolution can be well under-

stood using this model. Additionally, the point spread

function (PSF)

[16,17]

for image super-resolution at low light

illumination may be well characterized by using the

resolution estimation model.

A photon counting imaging system based on a Vernier

anode usually consists of the detector, the readout circuit,

and the data acquisition and decoding subsystem

[1–4]

The detector consists of an input window, photocathode,

MCP, Vernier anode, vacuum packaging shell, etc.

Figure

1 shows a typical photon counting imaging system

based on a Vernier anode showing noise sources. The

working principle can refer to Refs. [

3,14,15].

Fig. 1. Sketch of the Vernier anode-based imaging system show-

ing the distribution noise of the charge cloud, electronic noise,

and quantized noise of the data acquisition subsystem.

COL 14(12), 121102(2016) CHINESE OPTICS LETTERS December 10, 2016

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