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Kala 和 Warwick - 2013 - Planning Autonomous Vehicles in the Abse
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Kala 和 Warwick - 2013 - Planning Autonomous Vehicles in the Absence of Spe1
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, VOL. 14, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2013 1743
Planning Autonomous Vehicles in the Absence of
Speed Lanes Using an Elastic Strip
Rahul Kala and Kevin Warwick
Abstract—Planning of autonomous vehicles in the absence of
speed lanes is a less-researched problem. However, it is an impor-
tant step toward extending the possibility of autonomous vehicles
to countries where speed lanes are not followed. The advantages
of having nonlane-oriented traffic include larger traffic bandwidth
and more overtaking, which are features that are highlighted when
vehicles vary in terms of speed and size. In the most general case,
the road would be filled with a complex grid of static obstacles and
vehicles of varying speeds. The optimal travel plan consists of a
set of maneuvers that enables a vehicle to avoid obstacles and to
overtake vehicles in an optimal manner and, in turn, enable other
vehicles to overtake. The desired characteristics of this planning
scenario include near completeness and near optimality in real
time with an unstructured environment, with vehicles essentially
displaying a high degree of cooperation and enabling every pos-
sible (safe) overtaking procedure to be completed as soon as pos-
sible. Challenges addressed in this paper include a (fast) method
for initial path generation using an elastic strip, (re-)defining the
notion of completeness specific to the problem, and inducing the
notion of cooperation in the elastic strip. Using this approach,
vehicular behaviors of overtaking, cooperation, vehicle following,
obstacle avoidance, etc., are demonstrated.
Index Terms—Cooperative systems, intelligent vehicles, motion
analysis, multirobot systems.
GLOSSARY
For any general vehicle R
i
(vehicle being planned
denoted by Q, with all variables indexed q)
L
i
(x
i
,y
i
,θ
i
) Position (X
, Y
, orientation).
ΔL
i
Uncertainty.
v
i
Linear speed.
vpref
i
Preferred linear speed.
Δv
i
Uncertainty.
ω
i
Angular speed.
ω
max
i
Maximum angular speed.
acc
max
i
Maximum acceleration.
agg
i
Aggression factor.
ζ
static
free
Free workspace.
For trajectory τ
τ(t) Planned position at time t.
Manuscript received February 7, 2013; revised April 12, 2013 and May 30,
2013; accepted May 31, 2013. Date of publication June 28, 2013; date of
current version November 26, 2013. The work of R. Kala was supported by the
Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan (2010), U.K. under Award
INCS-2010-161. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 2012
Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, Alcalá de Henares, Spain, June 3–7. The
Associate Editor for this paper was M. Vaizquez.
The authors are with the School of Systems Engineering, University of
Reading, Reading, RG6 6AY U.K. (e-mail: rkala001@gmail.com; k.warwick@
reading.ac.uk).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TITS.2013.2266355
τ
obs
Trajectory considering only static
obstacles.
Δτ
obs
Deviation between τ and τ
obs
.
τ
strat
Strategy (+1/left or −1/right) to avoid
obstacles.
τ
strat
(i) Strategy to overcome obstacle i.
T Time until which motion is planned.
τ(T ){τ(T )[X
], Last planned position.
τ(T )[Y
],τ(T )[θ
]}
d
unc
Minimum distance to maintain to
overcome uncertain speed changes of
vehicles.
d
o
Minimum distance to overcome a
static obstacle ahead.
d
min
o
Minimum distance to be maintained
from the static obstacle while over-
coming it.
For any general state s considered in planning
[v
s
b
,v
s
a
] Speed bounds for safe travel.
R Set of vehicles considered for
feasibility.
(d
f
,d
ls
,d
rs
,d
fl
,d
fr
,d
b
) Distance from obstacle (ahead,
left, right, forward left, forward
right, back).
(p
f
,p
s
,p
d
,p
b
,LP) (forward, side, diagonal, back,
lateral) potential.
sen
X
, sen
Y
, sen
X
Y
, coop LP parameters denoting sensi-
tivities along axes/cooperation.
For any general waypoint τ
i
in trajectory
τ
0
Initial position/waypoint.
τ
i
obs
Point in τ
obs
closest to τ
i
.
(F
l
,F
s
,F
coop
,F
o
,F
total
) (lateral, spring extension, coopera-
tion, drift, total) force.
k
l
,k
s
,k
coop
,k
o
Optimization parameters denoting
contributions of each force.
I. I
NTRODUCTION
T
HE problem of planning autonomous vehicles deals with
all aspects of decision-making, which include selecting
the route to reach the goal [1], selecting the manner of avoiding
obstacles and other vehicles [2], generating a trajectory for mo-
tion [3], determining the lane of travel [4], dealing with special
incidents and blockages [5], etc. Planning may be different for
scenarios of straight roads, junctions, intersections, diversions,
etc., [6], [7]. The specific problem addressed in this paper is
planning for straight roads.
1524-9050 © 2013 IEEE
周林深
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