智能合约的实证分析：平台，应用程序和设计模式1
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arXiv:1703.06322v1 [cs.CR] 18 Mar 2017
An empirical analysis of smart contracts:
platforms, applications, and design patterns
Massimo Bartoletti and Livio Pompianu
Universit`a degli Studi di Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
{bart,livio.pompianu}@unica.it
Abstract. Smart contracts are computer programs that can be consis-
tently executed by a network of mutually distrusting nodes, without the
arbitration of a trusted authority. Because of their resilience to tamp er-
ing, smart contracts are appealing in many scenarios, especially in those
which require transfers of money to respect certain agreed rules (like
in financial serv ices and in games). Over the last few years many plat-
forms for smart contracts have been proposed, and some of them have
been actually implemented and used. We study how the notion of smart
contract is interpreted in some of these platforms. Focussing on the two
most widespread ones, Bitcoin and Ethereum, we quantify the usage of
smart contracts in relation to their application domain. We also analyse
the most common programming patterns in Ethereum, where the source
code of smart contracts is available.
1 Introduction
Since the release of Bitcoin in 2009 [
40], the idea of exploiting its enabling tech-
nology to develop applications beyond currency has been receiving increasing
attention [26]. In par ticular, the public and append- only ledger of transaction
(the blockchain) and the decentralized conse nsus protoc ol that Bitcoin nodes
use to e xtend it, have revived Nick Sz abo’s idea o f smart contracts — i.e. pro-
grams whose correct execution is automatically enforced without relying on
a trusted authority [
47]. The archetypal implementation of smart contra c ts is
Ethereum [28], a platform where they are rendered in a Turing-complete lan-
guage. The consensus protocol of Ethereum ensures that all and only the valid
updates to the contract states are recorded on the blockchain, so ensuring their
correct execution.
Besides Bitcoin and Ethereum, a remarkable number of alternative platforms
have flourished over the last few years, either implementing crypto-currencies
or some forms of smart contracts [
1, 7, 9, 30, 37]. For instance, the number of
crypto-currencies hosted on
coinmarketcap.com has increased from 0 to more
than 600 since 2012; the number of github projects related to blockchains and
smart contracts has reached, respectively, 2, 715 and 445 units (see Figure
1).
In the meanwhile, ICT companies and some national governments have started
dealing with these topics [41, 48], also with significant investments.
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