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OKSUZ et al.: IMBALANCE PROBLEMS IN OBJECT DETECTION: A REVIEW 1

Imbalance Problems in Object Detection: A

Review

Kemal Oksuz

†

, Baris Can Cam , Sinan Kalkan

‡

, and Emre Akbas

‡

Abstract—In this paper, we present a comprehensive review of the imbalance problems in object detection. To analyze the problems in

a systematic manner, we introduce a problem-based taxonomy. Following this taxonomy, we discuss each problem in depth and

present a unifying yet critical perspective on the solutions in the literature. In addition, we identify major open issues regarding the

existing imbalance problems as well as imbalance problems that have not been discussed before. Moreover, in order to keep our

review up to date, we provide an accompanying webpage which catalogs papers addressing imbalance problems, according to our

problem-based taxonomy. Researchers can track newer studies on this webpage available at:

https://github.com/kemaloksuz/ObjectDetectionImbalance.

1 INTRODUCTION

Object detection is the simultaneous estimation of categories

and locations of object instances in a given image. It is a fun-

damental problem in computer vision with many important

applications in e.g. surveillance [1], [2], autonomous driving

[3], [4], medical decision making [5], [6], and many problems

in robotics [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12].

Since the time when object detection (OD) was cast as

a machine learning problem, the ﬁrst generation OD meth-

ods relied on hand-crafted features and linear, max-margin

classiﬁers. The most successful and representative method

in this generation was the Deformable Parts Model (DPM)

[13]. After the extremely inﬂuential work by Krizhevsky et

al. in 2012 [14], deep learning (or deep neural networks) has

started to dominate various problems in computer vision

and OD was no exception. The current generation OD

methods are all based on deep learning where both the

hand-crafted features and linear classiﬁers of the ﬁrst gener-

ation methods have been replaced by deep neural networks.

This replacement has brought signiﬁcant improvements in

performance: On a widely used OD benchmark dataset

(PASCAL VOC), while the DPM [13] achieved 0.34 mean

average-precision (mAP), current deep learning based OD

models achieve around 0.80 mAP [15].

In the last ﬁve years, although the major driving force of

progress in OD has been the incorporation of deep neural

networks [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], imbalance

problems in OD at several levels have also received signif-

icant attention [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30]. An im-

balance problem with respect to an input property occurs

when the distribution regarding that property affects the

performance. When not addressed, an imbalance problem

has adverse effects on the ﬁnal detection performance. For

example, the most commonly known imbalance problem

in OD is the foreground-to-background imbalance which

All authors are at the Dept. of Computer Engineering, Middle East Techni-

cal University (METU), Ankara, Turkey. E-mail:{kemal.oksuz@metu.edu.tr,

can.cam@metu.edu.tr, skalkan@metu.edu.tr, emre@ceng.metu.edu.tr}

†

Corresponding author.

‡

Equal contribution for senior authorship.

manifests itself in the extreme inequality between the num-

ber of positive examples versus the number of negatives.

In a given image, while there are typically a few positive

examples, one can extract millions of negative examples.

If not addressed, this imbalance greatly impairs detection

accuracy.

In this paper, we review the deep-learning-era object

detection literature and identify eight different imbalance

problems. We group these problems in a taxonomy with

four main types: class imbalance, scale imbalance, spatial

imbalance and objective imbalance (Table 1). Class imbal-

ance occurs when there is signiﬁcant inequality among

the number of examples pertaining to different classes.

While the classical example of this is the foreground-to-

background imbalance, there is also imbalance among the

foreground (positive) classes. Scale imbalance occurs when

the objects have various scales and different numbers of

examples pertaining to different scales. Spatial imbalance

refers to a set of factors related to spatial properties of the

bounding boxes such as regression penalty, location and

IoU. Finally, objective imbalance occurs when there are

multiple loss functions to minimize, as is often the case in

OD (e.g. classiﬁcation and regression losses).

1.1 Scope and Aim

Imbalance problems in general have a large scope in ma-

chine learning, computer vision and pattern recognition.

We limit the focus of this paper to imbalance problems in

object detection. Since the current state-of-the-art is shaped

by deep learning based approaches, the problems and ap-

proaches that we discuss in this paper are related to deep

object detectors. Although we restrict our attention to object

detection in still images, we provide brief discussions on

similarities and differences of imbalance problems in other

domains. We believe that these discussions would provide

insights on future research directions for object detection

researchers.

Presenting a comprehensive background for object de-

tection is not among the goals of this paper; however, some

arXiv:1909.00169v3 [cs.CV] 11 Mar 2020

OKSUZ et al.: IMBALANCE PROBLEMS IN OBJECT DETECTION: A REVIEW 2

TABLE 1: Imbalance problems reviewed in this paper. We state that an imbalance problem with respect to an input property

occurs when the distribution regarding that property affects the performance. The ﬁrst column shows the major imbalance

categories. For each Imbalance problem given in the middle column, the last column shows the associated input property

concerning the deﬁnition of the imbalance problem.

Type Imbalance Problem Related Input Property

Class

Foreground-Background Class Imbalance (§4.1)

The numbers of input bounding boxes pertain-

ing to different classes

Foreground-Foreground Class Imbalance (§4.2)

Scale

Object/box-level Scale Imbalance (§5.1) The scales of input and ground-truth bounding

boxes

Feature-level Imbalance (§5.2) Contribution of the feature layer from different

abstraction levels of the backbone network (i.e.

high and low level)

Spatial

Imbalance in Regression Loss (§6.1) Contribution of the individual examples to the

regression loss

IoU Distribution Imbalance (§6.2) IoU distribution of positive input bounding

boxes

Object Location Imbalance (§6.3) Locations of the objects throughout the image

Objective Objective Imbalance (§7) Contribution of different tasks (i.e. classiﬁca-

tion, regression) to the overall loss

background knowledge on object detection is required to

make the most out of this paper. For a thorough background

on the subject, we refer the readers to the recent, compre-

hensive object detection surveys [31], [32], [33]. We provide

only a brief background on state-of-the-art object detection

in Section 2.1.

Our main aim in this paper is to present and discuss

imbalance problems in object detection comprehensively. In

order to do that,

1) We identify and deﬁne imbalance problems and

propose a taxonomy for studying the problems and

their solutions.

2) We present a critical literature review for the exist-

ing studies with a motivation to unify them in a sys-

tematic manner. The general outline of our review

includes a deﬁnition of the problems, a summary

of the main approaches, an in-depth coverage of

the speciﬁc solutions, and comparative summaries

of the solutions.

3) We present and discuss open issues at the problem-

level and in general.

4) We also reserved a section for imbalance problems

found in domains other than object detection. This

section is generated with meticulous examination of

methods considering their adaptability to the object

detection pipeline.

5) Finally, we provide an accompanying webpage

a living repository of papers addressing imbalance

problems, organized based on our problem-based

taxonomy. This webpage will be continuously up-

dated with new studies.

1.2 Comparison with Previous Reviews

Recent object detection surveys [31], [32], [33] aim to present

advances in deep learning based generic object detection.

To this end, these surveys propose a taxonomy for object

1. https://github.com/kemaloksuz/ObjectDetectionImbalance

detection methods, and present a detailed analysis of some

cornerstone methods that have had high impact. They also

provide discussions on popular datasets and evaluation

metrics. From the imbalance point of view, these surveys

only consider the class imbalance problem with a limited

provision. Additionally, Zou et al. [32] provide a review for

methods that handle scale imbalance. Unlike these surveys,

here we focus on a classiﬁcation of imbalance problems

related to object detection and present a comprehensive

review of methods that handle these imbalance problems.

There are also surveys on category speciﬁc object de-

tection (e.g. pedestrian detection, vehicle detection, face

detection) [34], [35], [36], [37]. Although Zehang Sun et

al. [34] and Dollar et al. [35] cover the methods proposed

before the current deep learning era, they are beneﬁcial

from the imbalance point of view since they present a

comprehensive analysis of feature extraction methods that

handle scale imbalance. Zafeiriou et al. [36] and Yin et al.

[38] propose comparative analyses of non-deep and deep

methods. Litjens et al. [39] discuss applications of various

deep neural network based methods i.e. classiﬁcation, detec-

tion, segmentation to medical image analysis. They present

challenges with their possible solutions which include a

limited exploration of the class imbalance problem. These

category speciﬁc object detector reviews focus on a single

class and do not consider the imbalance problems in a

comprehensive manner from the generic object detection

perspective.

Another set of relevant work includes the studies specif-

ically for imbalance problems in machine learning [40], [41],

[42], [43]. These studies are limited to the foreground class

imbalance problem in our context (i.e. there is no back-

ground class). Generally, they cover dataset-level methods

such as undersampling and oversampling, and algorithm-

level methods including feature selection, kernel modiﬁ-

cations and weighted approaches. We identify three main

differences of our work compared to such studies. Firstly,

the main scope of such work is the classiﬁcation problem,

OKSUZ et al.: IMBALANCE PROBLEMS IN OBJECT DETECTION: A REVIEW 3

which is still relevant for object detection; however, object

detection also has a “search” aspect, in addition to the

recognition aspect, which brings in the background (i.e.

negative) class into the picture. Secondly, except Johnson

et al. [43], they consider machine learning approaches in

general without any special focus on deep learning based

methods. Finally, and more importantly, these works only

consider foreground class imbalance problem, which is only

one of eight different imbalance problems that we present

and discuss here (Table 1).

1.3 A Guide to Reading This Review

The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides a brief

background on object detection, and the list of frequently-

used terms and notation used throughout the paper. Section

3 presents our taxonomy of imbalance problems. Sections 4-

7 then cover each imbalance problem in detail, with a critical

review of the proposed solutions and include open issues for

each imbalance problem. Each section dedicated to a speciﬁc

imbalance problem is designed to be self-readable, contain-

ing deﬁnitions and a review of the proposed methods. In

order to provide a more general perspective, in Section 8,

we present the solutions addressing imbalance in other but

closely related domains. Section 9 discusses open issues that

are relevant to all imbalance problems. Finally, Section 10

concludes the paper.

Readers who are familiar with the current state-of-the-art

object detection methods can directly jump to Section 3 and

use Figure 1 to navigate both the imbalance problems and

the sections dedicated to the different problems according to

the taxonomy. For readers who lack a background in state-

of-the-art object detection, we recommend starting with

Section 2.1, and if this brief background is not sufﬁcient,

we refer the reader to the more in-depth reviews mentioned

in Section 1.1.

2 BACKGROUND, DEFINITIONS AND NOTATION

In the following, we ﬁrst provide a brief background on

state-of-the-art object detection methods, and then present

the deﬁnitions and notations used throughout the paper.

2.1 State of the Art in Object Detection

Today there are two major approaches to object detection:

top-down and bottom-up. Although both the top-down

and bottom-up approaches were popular prior to the deep

learning era, today the majority of the object detection meth-

ods follow the top-down approach; the bottom-up methods

have been proposed relatively recently. The main difference

between the top-down and bottom-up approaches is that,

in the top-down approach, holistic object hypotheses (i.e.,

anchors, regions-of-interests/proposals) are generated and

evaluated early in the detection pipeline, whereas in the

bottom-up approach, holistic objects emerge by grouping

sub-object entities like keypoints or parts, later in the pro-

cessing pipeline.

Methods following the top-down approach are catego-

rized into two: two-stage and one-stage methods. Two-

stage methods [16], [17], [18], [21] aim to decrease the large

number of negative examples resulting from the predeﬁned,

TABLE 2: Frequently used notations in the paper.

Symbol

Domain Denotes

B See.Def.

A Bounding box

A set of

integers

Set of Class labels in a dataset

| |C

| ∈ Z

Number of examples for the ith

class in a dataset

Ci i ∈ Z

Backbone feature layer at depth i

I(P ) I(P ) ∈ {0, 1}

Indicator function. 1 if predicate P

is true, else 0

P i i ∈ Z

Pyramidal feature layer

corresponding to ith backbone

feature layer

∈ [0, 1]

Conﬁdence score of ith class (i.e.

output of classiﬁer)

∈ [0, 1]

Conﬁdence score of the ground

truth class

∈ [0, 1]

Conﬁdence score of background

class

u u ∈ C

Class label of a ground truth

ˆx ˆx ∈ R

Input of the regression loss

dense sliding windows, called anchors, to a manageable

size by using a proposal mechanism [21], [44], [45] which

determines the regions where the objects most likely appear,

called Region of Interests (RoIs). These RoIs are further

processed by a detection network which outputs the object

detection results in the form of bounding boxes and associ-

ated object-category probabilities. Finally, the non-maxima

suppression (NMS) method is applied on the object de-

tection results to eliminate duplicate or highly-overlapping

results. NMS is a universal post-processing step used by all

state-of-the-art object detectors.

One-stage top-down methods, including SSD Variants

[19], [46], YOLO variants [15], [20], [47] and RetinaNet [22],

are designed to predict the detection results directly from

anchors – without any proposal elimination stage – after

extracting the features from the input image. We present a

typical one-stage object detection pipeline in Figure 1(a). The

pipeline starts with feeding the input image to the feature

extraction network, which is usually a deep convolutional

neural network. A dense set of object hypotheses (called

anchors) are produced, which are then sampled and labeled

by matching them to ground-truth boxes. Finally, labeled

anchors (whose features are obtained from the output of the

feature extraction network) are fed to the classiﬁcation and

regression networks for training. In a two-stage method,

object proposals (or regions-of-interest) are ﬁrst generated

using anchors by a separate network (hence, the two stages).

On the other hand, bottom-up object detection methods

[23], [48], [49] ﬁrst predict important key-points (e.g. cor-

ners, centers, etc.) on objects and then group them to form

whole object instances by using a grouping method such as

associative embedding [50] and brute force search [49].

2.2 Frequently Used Terms and Notation

Table 2 presents the notation used throughout the paper,

and below is a list of frequently used terms.

OKSUZ et al.: IMBALANCE PROBLEMS IN OBJECT DETECTION: A REVIEW 4

BB Matching & Labeling

Anchor/RoI Set

GT Set

Feature Extraction

Detection

BB Matching, Labeling and Sampling

Blue GT

Black GT

Positive

Negative

Sampling

Ground Truth Scales

2- Scale Imbalance (§5)

Loss Values of Tasks

4-Objective Imbalance (§7)

1- Class Imbalance (§4)

Class 1

Class 2

3-Spatial Imbalance (§6)

IoU of Positive Input BB

0.60.5 0.7 0.8 0.9

# of

Examples

Detections & Loss Value

Classification

Regression

BBs

to Train

Labeled

BBs

(a)

(b)

Example Numbers

Black GT

Blue GT

Feature

Extraction

Network

Fig. 1: (a) The common training pipeline of a generic detection network. The pipeline has 3 phases (i.e. feature extraction,

detection and BB matching, labeling and sampling) represented by different background colors. (b) Illustration of an

example imbalance problem from each category for object detection through the training pipeline. Background colors

specify at which phase an imbalance problem occurs.

Feature Extraction Network/Backbone: This is the part of

the object detection pipeline from the input image until the

detection network.

Classiﬁcation Network/Classiﬁer: This is the part of the

object detection pipeline from the features extracted by the

backbone to the classiﬁcation result, which is indicated by a

conﬁdence score.

Regression Network/Regressor: This is the part of the

object detection pipeline from the features extracted by the

backbone to the regression output, which is indicated by

two bounding box coordinates each of which consisting of

an x-axis and y-axis values.

Detection Network/Detector: It is the part of the object

detection pipeline including both classiﬁer and regressor.

Region Proposal Network (RPN): It is the part of the two

stage object detection pipeline from the features extracted

by the backbone to the generated proposals, which also have

conﬁdence scores and bounding box coordinates.

Bounding Box: A rectangle on the image limiting certain

features. Formally, [x

, y

, x

, y

] determine a bounding box

with top-left corner (x

, y

) and bottom-right corner (x

, y

)

satisfying x

> x

and y

> y

Anchor: The set of pre deﬁned bounding boxes on which the

RPN in two stage object detectors and detection network in

one stage detectors are applied.

Region of Interest (RoI)/Proposal: The set of bounding

boxes generated by a proposal mechanism such as RPN on

which the detection network is applied on two state object

detectors.

Input Bounding Box: Sampled anchor or RoI the detection

network or RPN is trained with.

Ground Truth: It is tuple (B, u) such that B is the bounding

box and u is the class label where u ∈ C and C is the

enumeration of the classes in the dataset.

Detection: It is a tuple (

B, p) such that

B is the bounding

box and p is the vector over the conﬁdence scores for each

class

and bounding box.

Intersection Over Union: For a ground truth box B and a

detection box

B, we can formally deﬁne Intersection over

Union(IoU) [51], [52], denoted by IoU(B,

B), as

IoU(B,

B) =

A(B ∩

A(B ∪

, (1)

such that A(B) is the area of a bounding box B.

Under-represented Class: The class which has less samples

in a dataset or mini batch during training in the context of

class imbalance.

Over-represented Class: The class which has more samples

in a dataset or mini batch during training in the context of

class imbalance.

Backbone Features: The set of features obtained during the

application of the backbone network.

Pyramidal Features/Feature Pyramid: The set of features

obtained by applying some transformations to the backbone

features.

Regression Objective Input: Some methods make predic-

tions in the log domain by applying some transformation

which can also differ from method to method (compare

transformation in Fast R-CNN [17] and in KL loss [53] for

Smooth L1 Loss), while some methods directly predict the

bounding box coordinates [23]. For the sake of clarity, we

use ˆx to denote the regression loss input for any method.

2. We use class and category interchangeably in this paper.

OKSUZ et al.: IMBALANCE PROBLEMS IN OBJECT DETECTION: A REVIEW 5

Methods for

Imbalance Problems

Spatial Imbalance

(§6)

Imbalance in

Regression Task

(§6.1)

IoU

Distribution

Imbalance

(§6.2)

Object

Location

Imbalance

(§6.3)

Scale Imbalance

(§5)

Object/box-

level Imbalance

(§5.1)

Feature-level

Imbalance

(§5.2)

Objective Imbalance

(§7)

Class Imbalance

(§4)

Fg-Bg Class

Imbalance

(§4.1)

Fg-Fg Class

Imbalance

(§4.2)

• Task Weighting

• Classiﬁcation Aware

Regression Loss [30]

• Guided Loss [54]

•1.Hard Sampling Methods

• A.Random Sampling

• B.Hard Example Mining

– Bootstraping [55]

– SSD [19]

– Online Hard Example Mining [24]

– IoU-based Sampling [29]

• C.Limit Search Space

– Two-stage Object Detectors

– IoU-lower Bound [17]

– Objectness Prior [56]

– Negative Anchor Filtering [57]

– Objectness Module [58]

•2.Soft Sampling Methods

• Focal Loss [22]

• Gradient Harmonizing Mechanism [59]

• Prime Sample Attention [30]

•3.Sampling-Free Methods

• Residual Objectness [60]

• No Sampling Heuristics [54]

• AP Loss [61]

• DR Loss [62]

•4.Generative Methods

• Adversarial Faster-RCNN [63]

• Task Aware Data Synthesis [64]

• PSIS [65]

• pRoI Generator [66]

• See generative methods for

fg-bg class imb.

• Fine-tuning Long Tail

Distribution for Obj.Det. [25]

• OFB Sampling [66]

• Guided Anchoring [67]

• Free Anchor [68]

•1.Methods Predicting from the Feature Hierarchy of

Backbone Features

• Scale-dependent Pooling [69]

• SSD [19]

• Multi Scale CNN [70]

• Scale Aware Fast R-CNN [71]

•2.Methods Based on Feature Pyramids

• FPN [26]

• See feature-level imbalance methods

•3.Methods Based on Image Pyramids

• SNIP [27]

• SNIPER [28]

•4.Methods Combining Image and Feature Pyramids

• Efﬁcient Featurized Image Pyramids [72]

• Enriched Feature Guided Reﬁnement Network [58]

• Super Resolution for Small Objects [73]

• Scale Aware Trident Network [74]

•1.Methods Using Pyramidal Features as a Basis

• PANet [75]

• Libra FPN [29]

•2.Methods Using Backbone Features as a Basis

• STDN [76]

• Parallel-FPN [77]

• Deep Feature Pyramid Reconf. [78]

• Zoom Out-and-In [79]

• Multi-level FPN [80]

• NAS-FPN [81]

• Auto-FPN [82]

•1.Lp norm based

• Smooth L1 [17]

• Balanced L1 [29]

• KL Loss [53]

• Gradient Harmonizing

Mechanism [59]

•2.IoU based

• IoU Loss [83]

• Bounded IoU Loss [84]

• GIoU Loss [85]

• Distance IoU Loss [86]

• Complete IoU Loss [86]

• Cascade R-CNN [87]

• HSD [88]

• IoU-uniform R-CNN [89]

• pRoI Generator [66]

Fig. 2: Problem based categorization of the methods used for imbalance problems. Note that a work may appear at multiple

locations if it addresses multiple imbalance problems – e.g. Libra R-CNN [29]

3 A TAXONOMY OF THE IMBALANCE PROBLEMS

AND THEIR SOLUTIONS IN OBJECT DETECTION

In Section 1, we deﬁned the problem of imbalance as

the occurrence of a distributional bias regarding an input

property in the object detection training pipeline. Several

different types of such imbalance can be observed at various

stages of the common object detection pipeline (Figure 1). To

study these problems in a systematic manner, we propose a

taxonomy based on the related input property.

We identify eight different imbalance problems, which

we group into four main categories: class imbalance, scale

imbalance, spatial imbalance and objective imbalance. Table

1 presents the complete taxonomy along with a brief deﬁ-

nition for each problem. In Figure 2, we present the same

taxonomy along with a list of proposed solutions for each

problem. Finally, in Figure 1, we illustrate a generic object

detection pipeline where each phase is annotated with their

typically observed imbalance problems. In the following,

we elaborate on the brief deﬁnitions provided earlier, and

illustrate the typical phases where each imbalance problem

occurs.

Class imbalance (Section 4; blue branch in Figure 2)

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Transferable-Interactiveness-Network:用于人与物体交互检测的可传递交互性知识代码。（CVPR'19，TPAMI'21）