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Kaizen and Education

Peet Wiid

Abstract In this chapter the concept and origins of kaizen are discussed and the

difference between kaizen and Lean dissected. Although Lean has been popularised

in the Western world since 1989, it has unfortunately been a narrow interpretation of

the original Toyota Production System (TPS) with kaizen as a cornerstone concept.

The purpose of kaizen should be very clearly stated and aligned with the strategic

direction of the speciﬁc educational institution. Strategy must be a reﬂection of ‘cus-

tomer value’ as monitored through simplicity, quality, speed, cost, motivation, and

growth measurements. Although customer value should always be deﬁned (and con-

tinuously reﬁned) from all stakeholders’ perspectives, the primary customer remains

the student. The creation of a kaizen culture is based on seven principles, values,

behaviours, and beliefs embedded in the corporate and individual unconsciousness.

This culture of excellence will sustain the use of efﬁciency methods, tools, and tech-

niques. Continuous Improvement efforts in education have mainly failed during the

past century. However, with a kaizen approach this can be turned around as proven

in all sectors. It will require knowledge, skill, experimenting and learning, inspired

by committed kaizen leadership. Propagating kaizen lighthouses of excellence will

go a long way to break down the resistance to change.

Keywords Kaizen

· Lean · Continuous improvement · Lean education

Kaizen education

· Lean teaching · Process improvement

1WhatIsKaizen and Lean?

Kaizen as an organisational excellence approach originated in a manufacturing envi-

ronment but its principles and methods have been applied in various environments,

albeit that education and other service-orientated sectors have been lagging behind

P. Wii d (

)

Kaizen Institute, Auckland, New Zealand

e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

P. Wii d

Manukau Institute of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand

D. Parsons and K. MacCallum (eds.), Agile and Lean Concepts for Teaching

and Learning, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2751-3_4

64 P. Wii d

in its adoption (Emiliani, 2015a). It is also important to note that kaizen and Lean

are not synonymous. Until circa 2007 Lean was propagated mainly as a process

improvement methodology with minimal reference to the broader concept of kaizen

underpinning the Toyota Production System (TPS) with kaizen reduced to continu-

ous improvement activities (Womack, Jones, & Roos, 1990; Krafcik, 1988). In many

circles Lean has been used interchangeably with kaizen or TPS but increasingly since

2007 scholars in the ﬁeld of organisational improvement started to understand the

vast difference.

1.1 Deﬁning Kaizen and Lean

According to the legendary Japanese efﬁciency expert, Masaaki Imai, ‘Kaizen means

improvement. Moreover, it means continuing improvement

in personal life, home

life, social life, and working life’ (1986, p. xx). This implies a holistic approach to

pursue excellence (organisational and personal) whereby all people are engaged in

improving the organisation every day, in all areas. Improvement is therefore not only

the responsibility of a few improvement specialists.

According to Jon Miller (who grew up in Japan) the root meaning of kaizen is to

change for the better by driving out what is bad or evil (inefﬁciencies in this context)

(Miller, Wroblewski, & Villafuerte, 2014). To become better at almost anything

requires the application of self-discipline and sacriﬁce to eliminate bad habits and

to replace them with good behaviours that support high performance. Examples

of this approach are long-running successful s ports teams and athletes, renowned

musicians and singers, innovative and consistent business leaders, or outstanding

academics. Due to its strong focus on people and their behaviours, kaizen has a

moral or ethical underpinning which has not been fully recognised and researched

by the Lean fraternity. Kaizen thus pursues the eradication of what is ‘evil’ and

replaces it with what is regarded as ‘good’.

Lean proponents have seen kaizen as activities, usually by frontline staff and

middle management to make processes better (Ballé, 2010; Womack et al., 1990).

In contrast, Miller et al. argue that kaizen is a culture, encompassing all behaviours

in all areas of an organisation. They state it concisely: ‘…the common thread [is] –

that all types of kaizen serve to deliver results and develop people.’ (2014,p.32).

These kaizen behavioural patterns can be observed i n: (i) daily small, incremental

improvement activities by frontline staff and lower-level leaders; (ii) improvement

projects; (iii) kaizen leadership and strategy deployment; and (iv) formal support

and coordination of all kaizen activities by Continuous Improvement agents (Kaizen

Institute New Zealand, n.d.).

In this chapter, the author does not view kaizen and Lean as synonymous. However, sometimes in

quotations, sources are using these words interchangeably.

Kaizen is often translated into English as Continuous Improvement.

Kaizen and Education 65

Kaizen is driven by seven principles (to be discussed later) and these differ from

the ﬁve Lean principles (as described by James Womack and Daniel Jones in Lean

Thinking) in that the latter focus on the process only. The ﬁve Lean principles are:

(i) specify value; (ii) map the value stream; (iii) create ﬂow; (iv) establish pull; (v)

pursue perfection (Womack & Jones, 1996). The kaizen approach is holistic and a

representation of the Toyota Production System as introduced to the world outside

of Japan by Masaaki Imai in 1986. It also includes the development of the human

element in every process. It also expands to the improvement of broader society.

Kaizen is a holistic approach to make everything and everyone better; the work-

place, processes, policies, people, the environment, the economy, and humanity. The

ideal is that everything and everyone must beneﬁt from improvements; kaizen does

not cause harm (Emiliani, 2015c). It is a techno-social system whereby processes

and people are purposefully and continually improving through scientiﬁc problem

solving that enables the creation of value for the end customer and all other stake-

holders.

Lean, on the other hand, is a manufacturing-orientated Westernised interpretation

of the Toyota Production System initially studied by Krafcik (1988) and elaborated

on by Womack et al. (1990 and 1996). Although Lean has become popular since

it was coined by Krafcik, it has not been able to emulate the successes of kaizen

as developed by Toyota Motor Corporation as its ‘…focus has long been the near-

singular pursuit of productivity and efﬁciency improvements to lower costs and

increase proﬁts, usually culminating in lay-offs’ (Emiliani, 2015c, p. 8). From a

kaizen perspective an organisation does not become lean by being mean.

To better understand Lean and kaizen, it is important to gain insight into the

historical development of organisational excellence.

1.2 A Brief Perspective on Recent History

The way organisations behave has improved progressively since the Industrial Rev-

olution. During the late 1700s Eli Whitney introduced exchangeable, standardised

parts for muskets to enable the continuous use of a ﬁrearm once a defective part has

been replaced. Previously the whole ﬁrearm had to be discarded (Mirsky, 1998).

Mass manufacturing emerged during the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen-

tury, replacing craft production. Henry Ford and Frederick W. Taylor revolutionised

mass manufacturing through the establishment of the automotive assembly line

before and after WWI (Womack et al., 1990). It is regarded in many circles that Tay-

lor’s ‘Scientiﬁc Management’ mirrors Western thinking where the focus is mainly

on the process, especially its ﬁnancial beneﬁts for a few stakeholders. In contrast,

the Toyota Production System (TPS) is more holistic, a systems approach, leaning

towards an Eastern worldview whereby the group (all stakeholders) must beneﬁt

(Shingo, 2007).

Conversely, Emiliani (2015b) contends that Taylor did not propagate a focus

on process whereby the workers were disregarded. Taylor stated that Scientiﬁc

66 P. Wii d

Management ceases when the system delivers bad outcomes for people. It was unfor-

tunately the misuse of Scientiﬁc Management by others that led to the belief that

Taylor did not care about the workers. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth added to Tay-

lor’s scientiﬁc analysis (taking his time-and-motion studies to the next level) with a

stronger focus on the needs of the employee (Hellriegel, Jackson, & Slocum, 2002).

Albeit, an important reﬂection on the contributions of Ford and Taylor to organi-

sational improvement is that ‘the-winner-takes-it-all’ attitude in an organisation will

usually lead to disengagement by the negatively-affected stakeholders. Low morale

will often derail efforts to satisfy customer requirements and hasten entropy (deteri-

oration) of the system. Emiliani (2015a) speaks of ‘non-zero-sum outcomes’ as the

target condition; a ‘win-win’ situation for all stakeholders.

Walter A. Shewhart introduced Statistical Control Methods at Bell Telephone

Laboratories in New York during the 1930s. This helped to ‘recognise when to act

and when to leave a process alone’ (Walton, 1986, p. 7), bringing about efﬁciencies

by prioritising process problems through standardised response mechanisms. Dr.

W. Edwards Deming extended Shewhart’s work during the rebuild of the Japanese

economy after WWII. His approach to organisational improvement promoted sys-

tems thinking (not point improvements), measuring variation in performance, and

understanding human behaviour (Walton, 1986). Deming was recognised in 1960 by

Emperor Hirohito for his contribution to the rebuild of the Japanese economy.

Although Deming was not directly involved with Toyota Motor Corporation

(TMC), his methodology had a profound inﬂuence on the development of the Toy-

ota Production System (TPS) as stated by Dr. Toyoda, former president of Toyota

Motor Corporation in 2005: ‘As we continued to implement Dr. Deming’s teachings,

we were able to both raise the level of quality of our products as well as enhance

our operations on the corporate level.’ (Willis, 2012). Other contributors to the post

WWII economic revival in Japan include Joseph M. Juran and Kaoru Ishikawa.

Toyota Motor Corporation has been synonymous with organisational excellence.

The father of TMC was Sakichi Toyoda who developed power looms during the

late 1800s and early 1900s in an effort to make weaving easier for his mother and

the workers (Toyota Global Website, n.d.). This respect for people inspired the 45

patents he registered during his lifetime and has since been one of the two pillars of

the Toyota Production System (the other is continuous improvement). In 1907 the

very successful Toyoda Loom Company was established. TMC was founded in 1937

after Sakichi’s eldest son, Kiichiro, visited Ford Motor Corporation in 1927 and had

the vision to manufacture vehicles for the Japanese people. Eiji Toyoda, Kiichiro’s

cousin, also visited Ford Motor Corporation in 1950, which inspired him to pull

TMC from the doldrums after WWII. Together with Taiichi Ohno, they realised

that Ford’s mass production (which relied on large inventory holding, huge and

expensive equipment, and high capital expenditure) would not be viable in Japan

and this led to the development of a manufacturing system consuming minimal

resources, the Toyota Production System (Womack et al., 1990). Taiichi Ohno and

Eiji Toyoda developed the Just-In-Time system over a period of 20 years which

resulted in extraordinary success and become the subject of ongoing research since

Kaizen and Education 67

the 1980s. Much of what is covered in this chapter is based on their initial work as

well as the contribution of their colleague, Dr. Shigeo Shingo.

Masaaki Imai was the ﬁrst person to introduce the TPS philosophy of kaizen to the

world outside of Japan in 1986 in his award-winning and best-selling book, Kaizen:

The Key to Japan’s Competitive Success. Prior to this he worked closely with Taiichi

Ohno and the Toyoda family after he spent ﬁve years in the United States from 1957

to study American management practices through the Japan Productivity Centre.

On his return to Japan in 1961, he became a management consultant (Imai, 1986)

working closely with Taiichi Ohno and numerous businesses across the globe. He

published a highly acclaimed sequel, Gemba Kaizen. The Commonsense, Low-Cost

Approach to Management in 1997.

Imai’s book on kaizen (1986) inspired James Womack (2016) to study TPS and

he then popularised ‘Lean’ with Daniel Jones and Daniel Roos in 1990 with their

book The Machine That Changed the World (Womack et al., 1990). They introduced

Lean manufacturing methods in the 1990s, mainly focusing on cost-savings through

improving processes. Unfortunately, it can be argued that their ‘Western’ paradigm

focused their attention on the methods employed in TPS with the respect-for-people

aspect of Toyota sadly ignored. In many organisations this led to the notion that

‘Lean is mean’, often culminating in headcount reduction (Emiliani, 2015c). It was

only around 2007 that Lean advocates started to realise that TPS is more than a cost-

reduction methodology. Their corrective action was to introduce Lean Management

which gave more attention to Lean leadership and respectful behaviour. Nonetheless,

damage to the Lean methodology was already done in some Western economies,

especially in North America (Emiliani, 2017a).

Organisational improvement has been pursued for as long as organisations have

existed with numerous adaptations, failures, and gains. However, the Toyota Produc-

tion System is still regarded as the benchmark of excellence due to its holistic and

practical approach. But what is the purpose of the kaizen system?

1.3 The Purpose of Kaizen

1.3.1 Developing a Culture of Excellence

The purpose of kaizen is to create a sustainable organisational culture of excellence,

focused on creating value for the customer by everybody, everywhere in the organ-

isation through continuously solving problems and reducing waste (inefﬁciencies).

Customer value must be quantiﬁed in terms of quality, cost, and delivery (speed)

(Imai, 1986, 1997).

However, before problems can be ﬁxed they must ﬁrst be identiﬁed, based on

a new corporate and individual mind-set of pursuing a better situation. If people

do not see their workplace through the kaizen ﬁlter, they will not be focused on

eradicating inefﬁciencies and satisfying the needs of stakeholders. Once problems

have been identiﬁed, frontline people (e.g. teachers, lecturers, and coaches) must be

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