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sustainability

Article

Using the Concepts of Green Infrastructure and

Ecosystem Services to Specify Leitbilder for Compact

and Green Cities—The Example of the Landscape

Plan of Dresden (Germany)

Martina Artmann

*, Olaf Bastian

and Karsten Grunewald

Leibniz Institute of Ecological Urban and Regional Development, Weberplatz 1, 01217 Dresden, Germany;

k.grunewald@ioer.de

State Capital of Dresden, Environmental Ofﬁce, P.O. Box 120020, D-01001 Dresden, Germany;

obastian@dresden.de

* Correspondence: m.artmann@ioer.de; Tel.: +49-0351-46-79-231

Academic Editor: Tan Yigitcanlar

Received: 24 November 2016; Accepted: 24 January 2017; Published: 1 February 2017

Abstract:

In the light of ongoing global urbanization and the high pace of resource consumption,

there is an urgent need to foster compact cities. Currently, however, we lack integrative guidelines on

how to manage trade-offs between urban densiﬁcation and the provision of green space. Against

this background, this study applies the concepts of green infrastructure and ecosystem services to

develop a guideline for landscape planning to foster compact and green cities. The guideline was

tested on the example of the landscape plan of Dresden (Germany), which foresees a compact city in

a green network. Results show that the concepts of ecosystems services and green infrastructure can

support urban practitioners in structuring the complex interrelations between landscape planning and

compact and green cities. The developed guideline provides an integrative framework for modular

landscape planning that: (1) reﬂects the spatial heterogeneity and properties of urban ecosystems and

landscapes; and (2) considers cities as integrated socio-ecological systems. The case study indicates

that a more comprehensive perspective of cities and their ecosystem is required, one that connects

green with grey infrastructure. Further research should focus on how the green infrastructure concept

can be reﬁned to incorporate strategic planning for compact cities.

Keywords:

green network; ecosystem functions; landscape planning; multi-functionality;

urban biodiversity

1. Introduction

One of the most pressing social challenges is the ongoing global process of urbanization, resulting

in the degradation of urban ecosystem services and the loss of certain beneﬁts to residents generated

by urban nature [

]. Urban sprawl is undermining the “ecology in the city” [

], including natural

and semi-natural areas, e.g., forests or wetlands [

]. For instance, urban sprawl can fragment natural

habitats such as of forest cover [

], thereby negatively impacting on wildlife. The food supply is

also threatened by urban sprawl when ex-urban growth destroys high quality soils [

]. To reduce

such negative ecological and environmental impacts as well as social (e.g., over-reliance on cars) and

economic repercussions (e.g., higher per capita infrastructural costs) of urban sprawl, policymakers and

scientists are calling for the promotion of a more sustainable urban form, namely compact cities [

Although policies favoring the compact city include multi-dimensional objectives to secure sustainable

development, the main aim of compact cities is to protect the environment from further degradation

by urban sprawl [5].

Sustainability 2017, 9, 198; doi:10.3390/su9020198 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2017, 9, 198 2 of 26

To succeed, the concept of the compact city requires an integrative approach to ecological and

environmental sustainable development, one that reﬂects trade-offs between densiﬁcation and the

quantitative/qualitative supply of green spaces within urban developed areas [

]. Such an integrative

view is vital since ecosystem services (and thus urban green spaces as the most important supplier of

ecosystem services) are most effective when located close to areas which require them [

]. Clearly, the

ecosystem beneﬁts for the mental and physical health of residents are maximized when urban green

areas are located at short distances from local housing [

]. However, a case study in Barcelona

(Spain) showed that the demand for ecosystem services such as cleaner air and outdoor recreation

sites is largely unsatisﬁed in core urban areas because these services are mainly supplied by peri-urban

green areas [

]. This imbalance between the supply of ecosystem functions and demand for ecosystem

services is intensiﬁed when compact cities are fostered and urban green spaces are lost due to inﬁll

development and densiﬁcation processes.

In general, greater effort is required to establish integrative urban monitoring concepts which

reﬂect the ecology of the city. These must take into account built and (semi-)natural structures as well

city stewardship by urban actors while considering the interactions between biophysical, social as

well as governance structures and processes [

]. Such monitoring concepts are vital to determine

how a qualiﬁed urban inﬁll development can be implemented to create compact and green cities [

To this end, landscape ecological approaches for green structures (e.g., connectivity, patch structure),

governance processes (e.g., consideration of multiple functions of urban green spaces and its beneﬁt

for human well-being) as well as public participation (e.g., adaption of green spaces to demands of

residents) are required for the integrative urban green space planning of compact and green cities.

A recent review of green spaces and densiﬁcation has highlighted the need to identify such successful

policies, which aim at preventing green space degradation during compaction and enable development

of multi-functional urban green spaces [9].

Some scholars argue that the concept of green infrastructure should promote multi-functional

green spaces and their integration into the grey infrastructure [

]. Multi-functionality can also

be considered as the capacity of green infrastructure to supply multiple ecosystem services [

The multifunctional and multiscale aspects of green infrastructure are intended to strengthen

connections between different types of green space as well as with the grey urban infrastructures

(e.g., built-up land) [

]. The concept is advocated by the European Commission [

], which suggests

that green infrastructure can help promote compact cities, while a reduction in green infrastructure as

a result of land take for settlement and transport areas can degrade ecosystem services [8]. Although

the concepts of ecosystem services [

] and green infrastructure [

] are integrative tools to support

planning and policy for sustainable urban land management, further effort is required to ensure their

wider implementation in planning practice [20,21].

It is argued that land management and landscape planning are primary factors behind the

development of land cover (e.g., sealed land through road construction or green spaces in the form of

parks) and related types of land uses for human activities (e.g., roads or parks). Landscape planners can

set general targets in urban development, for instance aiming for a compact urban development rather

than urban sprawl. Through the spatial shaping of urban green infrastructure, landscape planning also

strongly inﬂuences ecosystem properties, functions and their potential to supply ecosystem services

for human well-being. Major aspects of landscape planning are voluntary cooperation and the supply

of information about the condition and development options of the nature and the environment to

state actors and civil society [

]. In the German-language planning literature, landscape planning

is shaped by Leitbilder, which are argued to be valuable tools in setting visions and operations for

actions to ensure sustainable landscape management. The Leitbild concept implies a transdisciplinary

planning approach in which experts and laypersons elaborate strategies and goals for sustainable

landscape planning. By considering the social dimensions of landscapes and by bringing together

various groups of actors to develop common visions for spatial planning, Leitbilder can provide a

Sustainability 2017, 9, 198 3 of 26

strategic framework to deal more effectively with planning conﬂicts (e.g., compact vs. green urban

development) not only in Germany but also around the world [23].

In view of the urgent need to establish compact and green cities, Leitbilder for landscape planning

should reﬂect guidelines on how this complex target can be achieved. In Germany, the need to

take into account a moderate densiﬁcation while ensuring the sufﬁcient quantitative and qualitative

supply of green spaces areas is termed “dual inﬁll development” [

]. This approach has already been

implemented in planning practice and urban development strategies [

]. For instance, the landscape

plan of Dresden (Germany) aims to realize a sustainable spatial development by promoting a compact

city that incorporates a green network [

]. In addition, the Leitbild “compact urban green” is applied

in the Bavarian capital Munich to foster the compact green city. However, urban planning in Munich

is criticized for overly complex planning processes that constrain the implementation of dual inﬁll

development [26].

Considering the contradiction between the need for compact development on the one hand

and urban green space on the other, we argue that the concepts of ecosystem services and green

infrastructure are valuable approaches to concretize Leitbilder of landscape planning dealing with

compact and green cities, their biophysical structures (in particular green space multi-functionality)

and governance processes. Against this background, the objective of this paper is to develop a

guideline on how landscape plans that obey the Leitbild of a compact and green city should be framed

to reconcile the desire for green cities while considering the development aim of compact cities. Based

on current research debates, this paper uses the concepts of green infrastructure and ecosystem services

to develop and test such an integrative guideline for compact and green cities. We attempt to answer

the following two research questions:

(1) How can the concepts of green infrastructure and ecosystem services support the

conceptualization of compact and green cities in the course of Leitbild development within landscape

planning under consideration of biophysical structures and governance processes?

(2) a. What will a guideline for landscape planning following the Leitbild of compact and green

cities under consideration of biophysical structures and governance processes cities look like; and b.

what is the value of its implementation?

To answer the ﬁrst question, the theoretical basis for a guideline on landscape planning is

conceptualized in Section 2 by drawing on relevant literature on urban ecosystem services and green

infrastructure under consideration of its value for compact cities. Based on the ﬁndings, a guideline is

developed in Section 3. The developed framework is tested on the case study of Dresden (Germany)

and its landscape plan (research question 2), which follows the Leitbild “compact city in a green

network”. The case study is explained in Section 3. Subsequently, the main results are presented and

visualized by selected examples from the case study. The paper closes with a discussion of lessons

learned as well as the main conclusions.

2. Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services Shaping Landscape Planning towards Compact

and Green Cities

In Germany, there is a long tradition going back to the 1970s of introducing environmental

concerns into planning. This is clear when one reviews landscape planning over the past decades.

According to the Federal Nature Conservation Act (§ 11 BNatSchG), the municipal landscape plan

must develop concrete targets, demands and measures related to nature conservation and landscape

management. This is the ecological basis for urban land-use planning. These targets and measures

of the landscape plan, which are integrated into the urban land-use plan, are binding for authorities.

To ensure sustainable land management, landscape plans in Germany traditionally have to develop

measures to secure the utilization and regeneration of primary natural assets, i.e., soils, the local

climate, water, air, wildlife and biotopes, landscapes, humans, cultural goods. To this end, German

landscape planning uses the concept of “landscape functions” to address landscape properties with the

Sustainability 2017, 9, 198 4 of 26

capacity to meet human needs (see our understanding of key terms in Box 1). In this way, landscape

plans can be said to focus on the supply side of ecosystem services [27].

In the English-language literature, “ecosystem functions” (or “landscape functions”) are deﬁned

as goods and services provided by natural components and processes and which satisfy human

needs directly or indirectly [

]. The landscape potential approach discussed in German landscape

planning literature (for an overview see [

]) reﬂects the capacity of an ecosystem/landscape to

provide services to potential users. Consideration of such ecosystems functions reveals society’s

potential to make use of structures and processes provided by ecosystems and landscapes through

various options for land use and resource development. Along with the capacity to deliver services,

ecosystem and landscape properties also have inherent capacity to deal with risks and to recover from

destruction [

]. In general, we can say that the focus of German landscape planning is the analysis and

evaluation of values and functions of the landscape as well as natural assets. These are analyzed and

assessed according to their relevance to achieve various goals such as the conservation of biodiversity,

a higher potential and functional capacity of the natural environment and the improved experience and

perception of nature and landscape by humans [

]. By considering ecosystem functions as ecological

phenomena, it is argued that the analysis of ecosystem service supply in landscape planning is largely

identical with the analysis of landscape functions [

]. In regard to regional and land use planning,

functions are also viewed as tasks imposed on landscape and ecosystems, namely to provide services

to humans [32].

However, the concept of landscape functions requires an integrative assessment and consideration

of its beneﬁciaries if we are to view landscapes and ecosystems as socio-ecological systems [

Since such an integrative perception is particularly important for a landscape plan that aims to develop

green and compact cities (see Section 1), we argue that this deﬁciency can be remedied by integrating

the concepts of ecosystem services and green infrastructure into landscape planning. In so doing, the

concept of green infrastructure can help landscape planners consider the socio-ecological aspects of

land use development [

]. Integration of the concept of ecosystem services into landscape planning

supports decision-makers in assessing the prospective distribution and quality of ecosystems and to

take account of landscape changes (e.g., densiﬁcation) that affect environmental qualities (e.g., a lack

of ecosystem services in developed areas) [22,34].

The main principles in the planning of green infrastructure are related to green structure

(multi-object approach, integration, connectivity, multi-functionality, and multi-scale approach) and

governance processes (strategic approach, social inclusion, and transdisciplinarity) [

] and thus

reﬂect the interactions between biophysical, social and governance structure and processes for the

ecology in, of and for the city (see Section 1 and [

]). These principles are not only essential to help

implement green infrastructure into the city but also provide guidelines for generating compact

and green cities. Compact cities are distinguished by areas of high-density development unevenly

distributed over the urban precincts [

]. These highly dense built-up areas contain demographically

diverse populations [

]. Meanwhile, it is argued that residents of such dense areas are very often

dissatisﬁed with the environmental and residential quality [

]. These deﬁciencies are linked to a lack

of urban green space [

]. Sufﬁcient supply of urban greenery is an important pre-condition for human

health and well-being [

]. To address the lack of urban green space in compact cities, we argue for

the application of a multi-object approach to green infrastructure planning. Within a multi-object

approach, various kinds of blue and green areas can be planned for developed and undeveloped urban

areas such as (private or public) forests and woodland, agricultural areas, urban parks (including

playgrounds or golf courses), allotments, private gardens, cemeteries as well as streams or lakes [

By providing a variety of green spaces with various functions, it is possible to ensure that the diverse

demands and preferences of urban residents for green spaces are met [38].

In regard to the supply of green spaces in developed urban areas, we see the integration of

green infrastructure into the grey infrastructure as the next important principle in green infrastructure

planning for compact and green cities. To increase the supply of urban green space, the green

Sustainability 2017, 9, 198 5 of 26

infrastructure concept suggests a physical or functional integration of green space into the planning of

grey infrastructure such as transport networks or vacant plots [15,18,40].

To counteract the loss of green spaces within highly dense built-up areas, the third important

aspect of green infrastructure planning for compact and green spaces is their connectivity in physical

and functional terms. Speciﬁcally, this implies the interlinking of separate green spaces within

developed urban areas as well as with relatively undisturbed green areas in less densely built-up

areas. For instance, urban ecological networks created through green ﬁngers and stepping stones

can support the connections between and supply of habitats, thereby safeguarding biodiversity [

Moreover, green networks developed alongside roadways increase local residents’ access to green

spaces by promoting walking or biking as alternative travel modes [

]. The interconnection of green

infrastructure also improves the air quality in compact cities by facilitating the circulation of fresh air

from rural to urban areas [42].

The examples related to connectivity also highlight the potential of green infrastructure to combine

various social and ecological functions. This aspect of multi-functionality is a key characteristic of

green infrastructure planning [

] and can be regarded as a vital step in achieving compact and

green cities. Multi-functional green spaces maximize beneﬁts for residents while compensating for

the limited extent of such urban greenery [

]. The interlinking of green spaces can be supported

by local measures (e.g., through environmental stewardship organizations taking responsibility for

roadway and riparian corridors [

]) or by national and international regulations (e.g., the European

transnational Natura 2000 network [

]). Clearly, green infrastructural planning needs to adopt a

multi-scale approach that involves not only individuals and communities but also actors at the regional

and state level [16].

Such multi-scale planning is also of great importance in securing green spaces as a protection

against further urban soil sealing (and thus supporting compact and green cities) [

]. Therefore,

we see the aspect of multi-scale action not only in relation to an integrated green structure planning

but also as a principle for urban green infrastructure governance. A further governance principle is

social inclusion as a participative planning approach [

]. On the one hand, such an open planning

process for compact and green cities can be in the form of a direct participative planning process that

engages residents to integrate green into the grey infrastructure. For example, local residents can be

encouraged to plant green roofs or generate green space on underused paved sites [46]. An inclusive

planning can also engage residents indirectly by considering the demands of different population

groups such as the elderly or children for green space. This also helps to reﬂect the various interests of

a diverse population in the compact city. Strategic green infrastructural planning also beneﬁts from

a transdisciplinary planning approach, thereby exploiting a wide range of expertise from different

stakeholders. This is important, for example, when integrating green space into grey infrastructure

in compact and green cities through green roofs, a process requiring engineers to collaborate with

environmental and urban development planners [

]. In general, green infrastructure planning must be

responsive to changing local framework conditions [

]. A strategic approach to realize compact and

green cities should reﬂect the contribution of green infrastructure to limit urban sprawl. For example,

regional greenbelts are promoted in Germany as an effective measure to preserve open space [47].

In this regard, it is worth emphasizing that high quality green space offering multiple ecosystem

services can play a vital role in securing manifold ecological and social beneﬁts [

]. The concept of

ecosystem services can be an integrative tool to help plan, develop and manage urban green spaces

in compact cities [

]. Since the objectives of landscape planning may conﬂict with the aims of urban

authorities to expand built-up areas and boost the local economy, great persuasion is needed to

protect urban green spaces. In this regard, landscape planning can be supported by monetary and

non-monetary accounting of ecosystem services as well as by emphasizing the multi-functionality

of landscapes and their broad range of ecosystem services [

]. Moreover, the concept of ecosystem

services speciﬁes particular social beneﬁts provided to local residents, thus linking beneﬁciaries

with ecological assets stated in landscape planning (see Section 1). This counterbalances the lack of

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