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Computer Systems

A Programmer’s Perspective

(Beta Draft)

Randal E. Bryant

David R. O’Hallaron

November 16, 2001



CONTENTS

2.1.3 DataSizes........................................ 25

2.1.4 Addressing and Byte Ordering . ............................ 26

2.1.5 Representing Strings .................................. 33

2.1.6 Representing Code . .................................. 33

2.1.7 BooleanAlgebrasandRings.............................. 34

2.1.8 Bit-Level Operations in C . . . ............................ 37

2.1.9 LogicalOperationsinC ................................ 39

2.1.10 ShiftOperationsinC.................................. 40

2.2 Integer Representations . . . .................................. 41

2.2.1 IntegralDataTypes................................... 41

2.2.2 UnsignedandTwo’sComplementEncodings ..................... 41

2.2.3 ConversionsBetweenSignedandUnsigned...................... 45

2.2.4 Signedvs.UnsignedinC................................ 47

2.2.5 Expanding the Bit Representation of a Number . . . ................. 49

2.2.6 TruncatingNumbers .................................. 51

2.2.7 AdviceonSignedvs.Unsigned ............................ 52

2.3 Integer Arithmetic . ....................................... 53

2.3.1 Unsigned Addition . .................................. 53

2.3.2 Two’s Complement Addition . . ............................ 56

2.3.3 Two’sComplementNegation.............................. 60

2.3.4 Unsigned Multiplication ................................ 61

2.3.5 Two’s Complement Multiplication ........................... 62

2.3.6 Multiplying by Powers of Two . ............................ 63

2.3.7 DividingbyPowersofTwo .............................. 64

2.4 FloatingPoint.......................................... 66

2.4.1 FractionalBinaryNumbers............................... 67

2.4.2 IEEE Floating-Point Representation . . . ....................... 69

2.4.3 ExampleNumbers ................................... 71

2.4.4 Rounding . ....................................... 74

2.4.5 Floating-PointOperations ............................... 76

2.4.6 FloatingPointinC................................... 77

2.5 Summary ............................................ 79

CONTENTS

3 Machine-Level Representation of C Programs 89

3.1 AHistoricalPerspective .................................... 90

3.2 ProgramEncodings....................................... 92

3.2.1 Machine-LevelCode.................................. 93

3.2.2 CodeExamples..................................... 94

3.2.3 A Note on Formatting ................................. 97

3.3 DataFormats .......................................... 98

3.4 Accessing Information . . . .................................. 99

3.4.1 OperandSpeciﬁers...................................100

3.4.2 DataMovementInstructions..............................102

3.4.3 DataMovementExample................................103

3.5 Arithmetic and Logical Operations . . . ............................105

3.5.1 LoadEffectiveAddress.................................106

3.5.2 UnaryandBinaryOperations .............................106

3.5.3 ShiftOperations ....................................107

3.5.4 Discussion .......................................108

3.5.5 Special Arithmetic Operations . ............................109

3.6 Control .............................................110

3.6.1 Condition Codes . . ..................................110

3.6.2 Accessing the Condition Codes ............................111

3.6.3 JumpInstructionsandtheirEncodings.........................114

3.6.4 TranslatingConditionalBranches ...........................117

3.6.5 Loops . . . .......................................119

3.6.6 SwitchStatements ...................................128

3.7 Procedures............................................132

3.7.1 StackFrameStructure .................................132

3.7.2 Transferring Control ..................................134

3.7.3 RegisterUsageConventions ..............................135

3.7.4 ProcedureExample...................................137

3.7.5 RecursiveProcedures..................................140

3.8 Array Allocation and Access ..................................142

3.8.1 BasicPrinciples.....................................143

3.8.2 Pointer Arithmetic . ..................................144

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