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Power management strategies for a stand-alone

power system using renewable energy sources and

hydrogen storage

Dimitris Ipsakis

a,1

, Spyros Voutetakis

*, Panos Seferlis

a,2

Fotis Stergiopoulos

, Costas Elmasides

Chemical Process Engineering Research Institute (C.P.E.R.I.), CEntre for Research and Technology Hellas (CE.R.T.H.),

P.O. Box 60361, 57001 Thermi-Thessaloniki, Greece

Systems Sunlight SA, 67200, Neo Olvio, Xanthi, Greece

article info

Article history:

Received 22 November 2007

Received in revised form

28 May 2008

Accepted 4 June 2008

Available online 4 September 2008

Keywords:

Renewable energy sources

Stand-alone power system

PEM Electrolyzer

PEM fuel cell

Lead-acid accumulator

Hydrogen production

Power management strategy

abstract

A stand-alone power system based on a photovoltaic array and wind generators that stores

the excessive energy from renewable energy sources (RES) in the form of hydrogen via

water electrolysis for future use in a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell is

currently in operation at Neo Olvio of Xanthi, Greece. Efﬁcient power management strate-

gies (PMSs) for the system have been developed. The PMSs have been assessed on their

capacity to meet the power load requirements through effective utilization of the electro-

lyzer and fuel cell under variable energy generation from RES (solar and wind). The evalu-

ation of the PMS has been performed through simulated experiments with anticipated

conditions over a typical four-month time period for the region of installation. The key

decision factors for the PMSs are the level of the power provided by the RES and the state

of charge (SOC) of the accumulator. Therefore, the operating policies for the hydrogen

production via water electrolysis and the hydrogen consumption at the fuel cell depend

on the excess or shortage of power from the RES and the level of SOC. A parametric sensi-

tivity analysis investigates the inﬂuence of major operating variables for the PMSs such as

the minimum SOC level and the operating characteristics of the electrolyzer and the fuel

cell in the performance of the integrated system.

ª 2008 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights

reserved.

1. Introduction

Power systems based on RES offer off-grid energy supply for

various applications, such us electriﬁcation of rural and

remote areas with problematic grid connection, powering of

telecommunication stations, energy intensive desalination

of water and water pumping for irrigation or drinking

purposes. These systems are usually a combination of photo-

voltaic systems (PV-systems), wind generators and diesel

generators [1–4]. Sometimes they are accompanied by micro-

hydro generators that utilize water potential energy to

produce electricity [5–7].

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ30 2310 498 317; fax: þ30 2310 498 380.

E-mail address: paris@cperi.certh.gr (S. Voutetakis).

Department of Chemical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, P.O. Box 1517, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, P.O. Box 484, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece.

Available at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.06.051

international journal of hydrogen energy 34 (2009) 7081–7095

Global warming is considered as one of the most critical

environmental problems that people will face in the next

50 years [8]. The use of RES for the production of electrical

energy can contribute signiﬁcantly to the reduction of green-

house emissions such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides

and protect the environment from further degradation. More-

over, solar and wind energy is abundant, free, clean and inex-

haustible. Other advantages of PV-systems and wind

generators include the long lifetime and low maintenance

requirements for both systems [9]. The time variations of the

weather conditions, however, require the design of a robust

system in order to compensate for the ﬂuctuations of the

available energy from RES. Traditionally, deep-cycle lead-

acid accumulators have been used as the means of short-

term energy storage. Accumulators though, have a relatively

small lifespan (around 3–6 years) and due to their heavy utili-

zation affect the operation and maintenance costs of the

system. Therefore, utilization of surplus energy from RES in

a water electrolyzer for hydrogen production and subsequent

use in a fuel cell in cases of shortage of energy provides

a viable, efﬁcient and promising alternative storage of energy

[9–16]. Such integrated stand-alone systems have been

recently developed and implemented in various locations

around the world [15,17,18].

The design, analysis and optimization of such systems

require the development of mathematical models for all indi-

vidual components [19–21]. Accurate models predict the daily

proﬁles of produced energy from PV-systems and wind gener-

ators based on meteorological data [22,23]. Dynamic PEM

electrolyzer and hydrogen storage analysis calculate the

necessary power for hydrogen production and storage pres-

sure in pressurized tanks [24]. Several models predict fuel

cell characteristics with empirical equations [22,25–27] and

rigorous mathematical dynamic models [28]. The proper

sizing of the various subsystems is a major challenge that

depends on weather conditions at the place of installation,

the selected operating policy and of course economic data

(e.g., cost of purchase, maintenance, operation and so forth).

Numerous studies have been published on this subject that

deal with different conﬁgurations of stand-alone power

systems [9,16,29–32]. Optimization strategies based on cost

minimization of the integrated system utilizing a short-term

Nomenclature

elec

electrode area, m

wind generator swept area, m

performance coefﬁcient of the wind generator

F Faraday’s constant, Cb/mol

bat

charging/discharging current, A

diode current for the PV-system, A

elec

operation current for the PEM electrolyzer, A

light current for the PV-system, A

diode reverse saturation current for the

PV-system, A

operation current for the PV-system, A

shunt current for the PV-system, A

i current density for the PEM fuel cell, A/m

Tafel parameter for the PEM fuel cell, A/m

l parameter for the overvoltage due to mass

transportation limitations for the PEM fuel cell,

m parameter for the overvoltage due to mass

transportation limitations for the PEM fuel cell, V

n number of mol of hydrogen, mol

number of cells for the PEM electrolyzer or the PEM

fuel cell

number of electrons

Faraday’s efﬁciency

hydrogen ﬂow rate, mol/s

P shortage or surplus power, J/s

Acc

power from/to the accumulator, J/s

hydrogen pressure before the compression, bar

hydrogen pressure after the compression, bar

critical pressure of hydrogen, bar

load

power demand of the load, J/s

output power from the wind generator, J/s

output power from the PV-system, J/s

RES

produced power from the RES, J/s

pressure in the storage tanks, bar

PMSs/PMS power management strategies/strategy

R universal gas constant, bar m

/mol K

series resistance for the PV-system, U

shunt resistance for the PV-system, U

SOC State of Charge of the accumulator

r resistance for the PEM fuel cell, U m

parameters for the ohmic resistance of the

electrolyte of the PEM electrolyzer, i ¼ 1,2

parameters for the overvoltage at the electrodes of

the PEM electrolyzer, i ¼ 1,.3

T temperature,



temperature of the hydrogen before the

compression, K

temperature of the hydrogen after the

compression, K

critical temperature of hydrogen, K

parameters for the overvoltage at the electrodes of

the PEM electrolyzer, i ¼ 1,.3

volume of the hydrogen before the

compression, m

volume of the hydrogen after the compression, m

elec

operation cell voltage for the PEM electrolyzer, V

operation cell voltage for the PEM fuel cell, V

open circuit voltage for the PEM fuel cell, V

operation voltage for the PV-system, V

rev,elec

reversible voltage for the PEM electrolyzer, V

rev,fc

theoretical reversible voltage for the PEM fuel

cell, V

tank volume, m

Greek symbols

a curve ﬁtting parameter for the PV-system, V

Tafel slope for the PEM fuel cell, V

b blade pitch angle for the wind generator, degree

l tip speed ratio

wind

wind speed, m/s

r air density, kg/m

international journal of hydrogen energy 34 (2009) 7081–70957082

and a long-term storage system can be proved quite efﬁcient

[29,33–35]. Several power management algorithms that use

models to predict the behavior of stand-alone power systems

have been developed and evaluated based on the achieved

performance [32,36,37]. The experience gained from the oper-

ation of different stand-alone power systems across the world

is a valuable resource for the selection of a proper operating

policy in a similar system [38–45]. The main conclusion is

that PMSs strongly affect the lifetime of the various subsys-

tems and in particular the lifetime of the accumulator, the

electrolyzer and the fuel cell. The key decisions in a PMS are

based on the SOC levels of the accumulator [22,35,37,46]. The

minimum SOC limit, SOC

min

, designates the operation of the

fuel cell and the maximum limit, SOC

max

, regulates the oper-

ation of the electrolyzer. The operation of the electrolyzer can

be supported either solely by the RES or by the RES and the

accumulator. In some cases, as described in Refs. [22,35,37],

a hysteresis band was used around those limits that would

ensure a smoother operation for the units.

Nevertheless, little is reported about the inﬂuence that key

variables like the operation limits of SOC of the accumulator

and the output power of the fuel cell have on the operation

time and operation variables (e.g. hydrogen inventory) of the

stand-alone power system, but caution was mainly given to

the operation of the accumulator as a sensitive subsystem.

For example, low SOC

min

limits (increased depth of discharge,

DOD) might lead to increased hydrogen inventory, but at the

expense of more intense usage of the accumulator [46]. The

identiﬁcation of such key variables could be used in optimiza-

tion studies that would take into account the operation costs

along with the key variables and guide the designer to suitable

decisions on enhancing the performance of the system for an

economical and reliable operation. In the present work, three

PMSs are proposed that ultimately aim to ensure the reliable

satisfaction of the system load requirement and safeguard

the units from undesirable operating conditions. The perfor-

mance of the entire power system under each PMS is then

estimated and assessed under variable conditions. Hence,

the interactions among the various components of the power

system are being fully explored and analyzed. The assessment

criteria include the satisfaction of the speciﬁcations of the

subsystems (electrolyzer, fuel cell, and accumulator) and the

maximization of the efﬁcient power utilization. The key deci-

sion parameters in the PMS are the level of the power provided

by the RES and the SOC levels of the accumulator. Therefore,

the operating policies of the hydrogen production via water

electrolysis and the hydrogen consumption in the fuel cell

mainly depend on the excess or shortage of energy from the

RES and the level of SOC for the accumulator. Constraints

associated with the operation of the electrolyzer and the

fuel cell are also taken into consideration. The proposed

logical block diagrams are given in such a way that the imple-

mentation in various simulation programs is quite easy to

handle.

The structure of the paper is as follows: in Section 2 the

mathematical models employed for each subsystem are

brieﬂy described. The major equations are provided and the

key model parameters are deﬁned. Section 3 presents the

proposed PMSs for the integrated system through logical block

diagrams and provides the implementation details. Section

4 reports the simulated results and evaluates the performance

of each PMSs towards certain criteria. A sensitivity analysis of

the system performance with respect to key decision parame-

ters attempts to identify the optimal operating factors for the

PMSs in Section 5.

2. Stand-alone power system: system

description and unit modeling

An application utilizing solar and wind energy with hydrogen

production through water electrolysis, storage and utilization

in fuel cell is currently in operation installed at Neo Olvio of

Xanthi, Greece. Fig. 1 shows a layout of the stand-alone power

system. The RES production subsystem comprises a PV-array

with a nominal capacity of 5 kW

and three wind generators

rated at 3 kW

in total. The system is attached to a 1 kW

load. Surplus energy from RES can potentially be used to oper-

ate a PEM electrolyzer, rated at 4.2 kW

. The produced

hydrogen is stored in cylinders under medium pressure with

total volume 6 m

(equivalent energy is around 190 kW h,

giving about 8 days of autonomy). In case that RES fail to

meet the load speciﬁcation, a PEM fuel cell rated at 4 kW

that utilizes the stored hydrogen can be used as an alternative

energy source. The produced water from the fuel cell is

recycled in a closed loop back to the water storage tank for

use in the electrolyzer. Furthermore, in order to account for

short-term produced energy ﬂuctuations and ensure

smoother operation of the system, a lead-acid accumulator

with a total capacity of 3000 A h at 48 V has been installed.

Optionally, a back up unit (diesel generator or grid) can be

used in order to cover the electrical needs during periods of

low RES energy and hydrogen inventory. Furthermore, power

electronic converters are employed for power conditioning

and integration of the various subsystems through a 48 V DC

bus. Thus, in order to assess the performance of the integrated

system, detailed and accurate mathematical models are

employed for the simulation of each subsystem in the inte-

grated system.

Fig. 1 – Block diagram of the proposed stand-alone power

system.

international journal of hydrogen energy 34 (2009) 7081–7095 7083

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