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Journal of Modern Physics, 2018, 9, 1697-1711

http://www.scirp.org/journal/jmp

ISSN Online: 2153-120X

ISSN Print: 2153-1196

DOI:

10.4236/jmp.2018.98106 Jul. 31, 2018 1697 Journal of Modern Physics

Unravelling the Quantum Maze

María Esther Burgos

Department of Physics, University of Los Andes, Mérida, Venezuela

Abstract

The restoration of philosophical realism as the basis of quantum mechanics is

the main aim of the present study. A spontaneous projection approach to

quantum theory previously formulated achieved this goal in cases where the

Hamiltonian does not depend explici

tly on time. After discussing the most

relevant flaws of orthodox quantum mechanics, a formulation of the sponta-

neous projections approach in the general case is introduced. This approach

yields experimental predictions which in general coincide with those

of the

orthodox version and overcomes its main flaws.

Keywords

Quantum Weirdness, Quantum Measurements, Spontaneous Quantum

Jumps

1. Introduction

The foundations of quantum mechanics were laid in the period 1900-1926. Some

of its achievements were introduced and discussed at the Fifth Solvay Congress

(1927). Even though the theory seemed bizarre, it was accepted by the majority

of participants at this meeting ([1], pp. 109-121). In 1930 Paul Dirac published

the first formulation of quantum mechanics [2]. Two years later John von Neu-

mann published

Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik

[3]. Quan-

tum mechanics was born.

These first versions of the theory share two characteristics: 1) The state vector

(wave function

) describes the state of an

individual system

. 2) They in-

volve two laws of change of the system’s state: Spontaneous (natural) processes,

governed by the Schrödinger equation; and measurement processes, ruled by the

projection postulate. This postulate gives an account for projections (collapses,

reductions or quantum jumps) caused by measurements. Many other versions of

quantum theory followed. Those where

describes the state of an individual

How to cite this paper:

Burgos, M.E.

(201

8) Unravelling the Quantum Maze

Journal of Modern Physics

, 1697-1711.

https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2018.98106

Received:

June 15, 2018

Accepted:

July 28, 2018

Published:

July 31, 2018

8 by author and

Scientific

Research Publishing Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative

Commons Attribution International

License (CC BY

4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

M. E. Burgos

DOI:

10.4236/jmp.2018.98106 1698 Journal of Modern Physics

system

and

the projection postulate is included among its axioms are generally

called standard, ordinary or orthodox quantum mechanics (OQM), sometimes

referred to as the

Copenhagen Interpretation

From its inception OQM, and in particular its projection postulate, was the

target of merciless criticism. Many scientists denounced what they considered its

flaws. Among them, 1) it is incompatible with determinism; 2) it implies a kind

of action-at-a-distance; and 3) it renounces philosophical realism. In addition,

OQM presents a conflict with conservation laws which has been largely ignored

[4] [5] [6] [7] [8] and carries the seeds of incoherence and contradictions [9] [10].

In 1931 Albert Einstein rightfully proclaimed: “the belief in an external world

independent of the perceiving subject is the basis of all natural science” [11]. The

restoration of philosophical realism as the basis of quantum mechanics is hence

worth being pursued. The corresponding change of formalism should be realized,

however, keeping as much as possible the experimental predictions of OQM, a

theory imposingly successful [12].

This is the main aim of the spontaneous projection approach (SPA), a version

of quantum theory previously formulated for cases where the Hamiltonian does

not depend explicitly on time. It achieved this goal to a certain degree: it does

not modify the Schrödinger equation and recovers a version of Born’s postulate

where no reference to measurements is made [13] [14] [15]. But the fact that it

cannot account for cases where the Hamiltonian depends explicitly on time was

a flaw which became increasingly apparent during our critical review of time

dependent perturbation theory (TDPT) and forced us to conclude that

OQM

weirdness is not limited to the measurement problem

[9] [10].

The version of SPA introduced in the present paper is more general than the

previous one for it includes cases where the Hamiltonian depends explicitly on

time. It keeps, however, the essential traits of SPA first version and yields, as far

as we can see, the same experimental predictions obtained from OQM.

2. Philosophical Realism, Quantum Measurements and

Scientific Problems

We uphold philosophical realism. We did in the first version of SPA and adopt

the same epistemology as the basis of our present, more elaborated and general

formulation of SPA. Our philosophical starting point can be stated as follows: 1)

the things physics is about are supposed to exist, whether they are observed or

not; 2) every scientific theory represents things through conceptual models; and

3) the adequacy of a theory (and corresponding models) to the things it refers to

must take experimental results into account. In agreement with the philosophi-

cal point of view we adopt, “

there are no definitive theories or models in

(

factual

)

science

because scientific knowledge is always of a hypothetical and never of a

final nature” [16] [17]. More on this subject in ([18], p. 86).

According to Mario Bunge, “the main epistemological problem about quan-

tum theory is whether it represents real (autonomously existing) things, and

M. E. Burgos

DOI:

10.4236/jmp.2018.98106 1699 Journal of Modern Physics

therefore whether it is compatible with epistemological realism. The latter is the

family of epistemologies which assume that a) the world exists independently of

the knowing subject, and b) the task of science is to produce maximally true

conceptual models of reality…” ([19], pp. 191-192). He adds: “The main pillar of

the non-realist interpretations of quantum theory is a certain view on measure-

ment and on the projection (reduction) of the state function that is involved in

measurement… [Sometimes] ‘measurement’ is misused to denote

any interac-

tion

of an entity with the environment… However, the worst misconception of

measurement is its identification with the subjective experience of

taking cog-

nizance

of the outcome of measurement” ([19], pp. 192-193). For instance, in

von Neumann’s view, a complete measurement involves the consciousness of the

observer ([1], pp. 481-482) ([20], pp. 418-421). “By assuming that observation

escapes the laws of physics… the orthodox view treats measurement as an un-

physical process…” ([19], p. 200).

In his answer to the question “what can be observed?” Bell quotes Einstein

saying “it is theory which decides what is ‘observable’. I think he was

right—‘observation’ is a complicated and theory-laden business. Then

that no-

tion should not appear in the formulation of fundamental theory

” ([21], p. 208;

emphases added). Bell exposes to ridicule the supposedly necessary intervention

of an observer to cause projections when he asks: “What exactly qualifies some

physical system to play the role of ‘measurer’? Was the wave function of the

world waiting to jump for thousands of millions of years until a single-celled

living creature appeared? Or did it have to wait a little longer, for some better

qualified system... with a PhD? If the theory is to apply to anything but highly

idealized laboratory operations, are we not obliged to admit that more or less

‘measurement-like’ processes are going on all the time, more or less everywhere?

Do we have jumping all the time?” ([21], p. 209).

Some authors dealing with the measurement problem avoid reference to the

observer, but assume that measuring devices are macroscopic. Concerning this

hypothesis Max Jammer highlights: “as long as a quantum mechanical one-body

or many-body system does not interact with a macroscopic object, as long as its

motion is described by the deterministic Schrödinger time-dependent equation,

no events could be considered to take place in the system… If the whole physical

universe were composed only of microphysical entities, as it should be according

to the atomic theory, it would be a universe of evolving potentialities (time-

dependent

-functions) but not of real events” ([1], p. 474).

A few authors have considered the possibility that projections may happen at

the microscopic level, that they are not necessarily the result of the interaction

between a quantum system and a macroscopic object [22] [23]. We agree. Col-

lapses are a kind of spontaneous processes occurring in nature. In order to take

place, they require neither the intervention of observers nor the interaction of a

microscopic (quantum) system with a macroscopic (classical) measuring device

[13]. Reductions may also happen in tiny isolated systems.

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