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Journal of Environmental Protection, 2017, 8, 1087-1099

http://www.scirp.org/journal/jep

ISSN Online: 2152-2219

ISSN Print: 2152-2197

DOI:

10.4236/jep.2017.810069 Sep. 20, 2017 1087 Journal of Environmental Protection

Estimating the Health Cost of Air Pollution:

The Case of Morocco

Lelia Croitoru

, Maria Sarraf

The World Bank Group, Washington D.C., USA

Abstract

Globally, ambient fine particulate matter (PM

2.5

) is the fifth leading cause of

death. Household air pollution from

use of solid fuels is the tenth ranked

cause of death. Together, ambient and household air pollution caused 6.4 mi

lion deaths worldwide. In the Middle East and North Africa region, an est

mated 125,000 lives are lost annually to diseases associated with

ambient and

household air pollution. This paper estimates the economic cost of air poll

tion in Morocco, a country marked by rapid economic development and u

banization. Using the most updated causal relationships between long-

term

exposure to PM

2.5

and premature mortality, the paper estimates that air poll

tion costs society about US$1.14 billion annually, or 1.05 percent of the cou

try’s GDP in 2014. Ambient air pollution is responsible for nearly three qua

ters of this cost, as a result of large exposure to high PM

2.5

levels in cities like

Casablanca, Tangier, and Marrakesh. Household air pollution is a problem

particularly for rural households using solid fuels for cooking and heating.

Based on these results, the paper identifies the most affected areas

and the

most vulnerable groups in the country.

Keywords

Ambient Air Pollution, Household Air Pollution, Mortality, Morbidity, PM

2.5

1. Introduction

Ambient air pollution

is a major contributor to human mortality and morbidity

[1] [2] [3]. Epidemiological studies have established robust causal relationships

between long-term exposure to PM

2.5

—particulate matter with aerodynamic

diameter of less than 2.5 microns—and premature deaths related to heart dis-

This paper uses the World Health Organization (WHO) terminology of ambient (outdoor) air po

lution (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/

) and household (indoor) air pollution

(http://www.who.int/indoorair/en/)

How to cite this paper:

Croitoru, L. and

Sarraf

, M. (2017)

Estimating the Health

Cost of Air Pollution: The Case of Moro

Journal of Environmental Protection

1087

-1099.

https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2017.810069

Received:

August 17, 2017

Accepted:

September 17, 2017

Published:

September 20, 2017

7 by authors and

Scientific

Research Publishing Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative

Commons Attribution International

License (CC BY

4.0).

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

L. Croitoru, M. Sarraf

DOI:

10.4236/jep.2017.810069 1088 Journal of Environmental Protection

ease, stroke, respiratory diseases, and lung cancer, thereby substantially reducing

life expectancy [4]. Exposure to PM

2.5

also causes morbidity, resulting in prob-

lems such as cases of chronic bronchitis, hospital admissions, work loss days, re-

stricted activity days, and acute lower respiratory infections in children [5].

In 2015, ambient PM

2.5

was the fifth-ranked mortality risk factor

, accounting

for 7.6 percent of total global mortality [6], causing 4.2 million deaths and 103.1

million lost years of healthy life [7]. Ischemic heart disease and cerebro-vascular

diseases accounted for 57 percent of the deaths. China and India stood out with

the highest air pollution-related mortality, each exceeding 1 million deaths. In

addition, globally, household air pollution from the use of solid fuels (e.g. coal,

wood, dung) for cooking and heating was the tenth-ranked mortality risk factor

in 2015, being responsible for 2.8 million deaths and 85.6 million lost years of

healthy life [6] [7].

Recent efforts estimated that premature mortality cost the global economy

about US$225 billion in lost labor income in 2013, or about US$5.1 trillion in

welfare losses [8]. In the Middle East and North Africa region, an estimated

125,000 lives were lost in the same year to diseases associated with ambient and

household air pollution; this corresponded to welfare losses of about US$154 bil-

lion, or 2.2 percent of the regional gross domestic product (GDP).

This paper estimates the economic cost of air pollution in Morocco. It is part

of a broader study carried out by the World Bank, which aims to estimate the

overall cost of environmental degradation in the country [9]. The paper uses the

most updated methodology to value in monetary terms the impact of PM

2.5

people’s health; puts the results into a broader perspective of the country’s over-

all cost of environmental degradation; and identifies the most affected areas and

groups in Morocco. The analysis has been carried out during 2015-2016, and is

based on secondary information collected from Government institutions, na-

tional statistics and scientific literature.

2. Air Pollution in Morocco

Between 2004 and 2014, Morocco experienced strong economic growth, reflect-

ed by an overall increase in per capita GDP of 34 percent [10]. During the same

period, population grew by an annual 1.25 percent on average; while urban pop-

ulation, which is mostly concentrated on coastal areas, increased even faster (2.1

percent per year) [11]. Coastal cities are also home for most economic activities,

such as energy and industry, and have experienced a rapid growth of road traffic

[12]. These activities generated a rapid increase in emissions of local and global

air pollutants [13].

Ambient air pollution

. The country started to monitor air quality in

1997.The first efforts were carried out by the Ministry of Sustainable Develop-

ment in the city of Rabat using a mobile laboratory, and were followed by mea-

surements conducted by the Directorate of National Meteorology (

Direction de

After high systolic blood pressure, smoking, high fasting plasma glucose and high total cholesterol.

L. Croitoru, M. Sarraf

DOI:

10.4236/jep.2017.810069 1089 Journal of Environmental Protection

la météorologienationale

, DMN) in Greater Casablanca. Currently, the DMN

manages the national air quality-monitoring network, which has 29 fixed and 3

mobile stations covering 15 cities [14]. These stations monitor the ambient con-

centration of several particulates, such as nitrogen dioxide (NO

), particulate

matter with diameter less than 10 microns (PM

), ozone (O

), and carbon mo-

noxide (CO). Aware of the harmful effects of local pollutants on people’s health,

the country has already conducted several studies which valued the impacts of

ambient air pollution on people’s health in Casablanca, Mohammedia, and Fès

[15] [16].

Household air pollution

resulting from the use of solid fuels for cooking and

heating is also associated with substantial health effects [4]. Generally, burning

solid fuels (wood, charcoal, agricultural residues) in households causes emis-

sions of PM

2.5

and other pollutants harmful to human health. Other fuels (e.g.

liquefied petroleum gas, biogas) are cleaner and generate less PM

2.5

. In Morocco,

no information is available on PM

2.5

concentrations at the level of rural house-

holds. However, per capita energy consumption was estimated at 0.54 tons of oil

equivalent (toe) in 2012, which is very low compared to the world average (1.9

toe/capita) and that of Africa (0.67 toe/inhabitant) [17]. Wood and coal ac-

counted for 25 percent of total energy consumption in the same year, according

to communications with the Department of Energy and Mines

3. Ambient Air Pollution

This section estimates the impact of exposure to ambient PM

2.5

on human mor-

tality and morbidity, using 2014 as the year of reference. The valuation is based

on four steps, presented below.

Step 1. Measure the PM

2.5

concentration. The Ministry of Sustainable De-

velopment monitors only particles with a diameter of less than 10 micrometers

(PM

)

. Several measurement stations located in Agadir, Benslimane, Casablan-

ca, El Jadida, Fès, Mohammedia, Khouribga, Marrakech, Safi, Salé, and Tangier

provided daily data for the period 2012-2015. These data are used to estimate the

annual average PM

2.5

concentrations for each city, as follows:

1) The annual average PM

concentration for each station is quantified based

on daily monitoring data.

According to communications with the Department of Energy and Mines, energy consumption in

rural areas in 2012 was based on butane (788 toe), wood and charcoal (339 toe) and electricity (186

toe).

It is important to note that the country’s energy sector grew considerably, particularly in the

electricity sector. Nowadays, all cities are connected to the network of the National Office of Water

and Electricity and the rate of rural electrificati

on is 96.8 percent. In addition, the National Energy

Strategy—

based on the mobilization of its own national resources and the growth of renewable

energies in the energy mix—

places Morocco among the leading countries in terms of renewable

energy development [17].

A global effort has been conducted to estimate the trend in ambient PM

2.5

concentrations in each

country [18], based on a combination of satellite imagery and ground-based PM

2.5

observations.

However, this paper uses data from ground measurements, as they are considered to be more reli

ble. For example, for the city of Casablanca, the annual PM

2.5

concentration was estimated at 12.3

μg/m

, based on satellite data, as opposed to 19 μg/m

, based on ground measurements [9].

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