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区块链从入门到崩溃

版本：v-1.0

日期：2018-07-04

整理：金明杰

前言

把区块链学习入门做一个整理，逐步添加完善，有原创内容，也有网络转载整理分享。暂时取名叫入门到崩溃，欢迎志同

道合的朋友一块来补充完善。

大致整理汇总区块链入门学习相关资料，虽然题目是“入门到崩溃”，希望还是能学到想要学的内容。

入门区块链

创世论文，区块链起源于比特币，区块链并不是新技术，而是之前一些成熟技术的巧妙结合实现了区块链的特性。

在入门区块链的时候，创世论文必须要去通读一遍，大致了解比特币的一个概念，后续再去看一些其他资料会有一个大致

的基础。

比特币入门

创世论文

《Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System》:https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf

《一种点对点的电子现金系统》

配合中英文翻译整理

《Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System》

Satoshi Nakamoto

satoshin@gmx.com

www.bitcoin.org

Abstract. A purely peer-to-peer version of electronic cash would allow online

payments to be sent directly from one party to another without going through a

financial institution. Digital signatures provide part of the solution, but the main

benefits are lost if a trusted third party is still required to prevent double-spending.

We propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer-to-peer network.

The network timestamps transactions by hashing them into an ongoing chain of

hash-based proof-of-work, forming a record that cannot be changed without redoing

the proof-of-work. The longest chain not only serves as proof of the sequence of

events witnessed, but proof that it came from the largest pool of CPU power. As

long as a majority of CPU power is controlled by nodes that are not cooperating to

attack the network, they'll generate the longest chain and outpace attackers. The

network itself requires minimal structure. Messages are broadcast on a best effort

basis, and nodes can leave and rejoin the network at will, accepting the longest

proof-of-work chain as proof of what happened while they were gone.

[摘要]：本文提出了一种完全通过点对点技术实现的电子现金系统，它使得在线支付能够直接由一方发起并支付给另外一

方，中间不需要通过任何的金融机构。虽然数字签名（Digital signatures）部分解决了这个问题，但是如果仍然需要第

三方的支持才能防止双重支付（double-spending）的话，那么这种系统也就失去了存在的价值。我们(we)在此提出一

种解决方案，使现金系统在点对点的环境下运行，并防止双重支付问题。该网络通过随机散列（hashing）对全部交易加

上时间戳（timestamps），将它们合并入一个不断延伸的基于随机散列的工作量证明（proof-of-work）的链条作为交

易记录，除非重新完成全部的工作量证明，形成的交易记录将不可更改。最长的链条不仅将作为被观察到的事件序列

（sequence）的证明，而且被看做是来自CPU计算能力最大的池（pool）。只要大多数的CPU计算能力都没有打算合作

起来对全网进行攻击，那么诚实的节点将会生成最长的、超过攻击者的链条。这个系统本身需要的基础设施非常少。信息

尽最大努力在全网传播即可，节点(nodes)可以随时离开和重新加入网络，并将最长的工作量证明链条作为在该节点离线

期间发生的交易的证明。

1.Introduction

Commerce on the Internet has come to rely almost exclusively on financial institutions serving as

trusted third parties to process electronic payments. While the system works well enough for

most transactions, it still suffers from the inherent weaknesses of the trust based model.

Completely non-reversible transactions are not really possible, since financial institutions cannot

avoid mediating disputes. The cost of mediation increases transaction costs, limiting the

minimum practical transaction size and cutting off the possibility for small casual transactions,

and there is a broader cost in the loss of ability to make non-reversible payments for nonreversible

services. With the possibility of reversal, the need for trust spreads. Merchants must

be wary of their customers, hassling them for more information than they would otherwise need.

A certain percentage of fraud is accepted as unavoidable. These costs and payment uncertainties

can be avoided in person by using physical currency, but no mechanism exists to make payments

over a communications channel without a trusted party.

What is needed is an electronic payment system based on cryptographic proof instead of trust,

allowing any two willing parties to transact directly with each other without the need for a trusted

third party. Transactions that are computationally impractical to reverse would protect sellers

from fraud, and routine escrow mechanisms could easily be implemented to protect buyers. In

this paper, we propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer-to-peer distributed

timestamp server to generate computational proof of the chronological order of transactions. The

system is secure as long as honest nodes collectively control more CPU power than any

cooperating group of attacker nodes.

1.简介

互联网上的贸易，几乎都需要借助金融机构作为可资信赖的第三方来处理电子支付信息。虽然这类系统在绝大多数情况下

都运作良好，但是这类系统仍然内生性地受制于“基于信用的模式”(trust based model)的弱点。我们无法实现完全不

可逆的交易，因为金融机构总是不可避免地会出面协调争端。而金融中介的存在，也会增加交易的成本，并且限制了实际

可行的最小交易规模，也限制了日常的小额支付交易。并且潜在的损失还在于，很多商品和服务本身是无法退货的，如果

缺乏不可逆的支付手段，互联网的贸易就大大受限。因为有潜在的退款的可能，就需要交易双方拥有信任。而商家也必须

提防自己的客户，因此会向客户索取完全不必要的个人信息。而实际的商业行为中，一定比例的欺诈性客户也被认为是不

可避免的，相关损失视作销售费用处理。而在使用物理现金的情况下，这些销售费用和支付问题上的不确定性却是可以避

免的，因为此时没有第三方信用中介的存在。

所以，我们非常需要这样一种电子支付系统，它基于密码学原理而不基于信用，使得任何达成一致的双方，能够直接进行

支付，从而不需要第三方中介的参与。杜绝回滚(reverse)支付交易的可能，这就可以保护特定的卖家免于欺诈；而对于想

要保护买家的人来说，在此环境下设立通常的第三方担保机制也可谓轻松加愉快。在这篇论文中，我们(we)将提出一种通

过点对点分布式的时间戳服务器来生成依照时间前后排列并加以记录的电子交易证明，从而解决双重支付问题。只要诚实

的节点所控制的计算能力的总和，大于有合作关系的(cooperating)攻击者的计算能力的总和，该系统就是安全的。

2.Transactions

We define an electronic coin as a chain of digital signatures. Each owner transfers the coin to the

next by digitally signing a hash of the previous transaction and the public key of the next owner

and adding these to the end of the coin. A payee can verify the signatures to verify the chain of

ownership.

The problem of course is the payee can't verify that one of the owners did not double-spend

the coin. A common solution is to introduce a trusted central authority, or mint, that checks every

transaction for double spending. After each transaction, the coin must be returned to the mint to

issue a new coin, and only coins issued directly from the mint are trusted not to be double-spent.

The problem with this solution is that the fate of the entire money system depends on the

company running the mint, with every transaction having to go through them, just like a bank.

We need a way for the payee to know that the previous owners did not sign any earlier

transactions. For our purposes, the earliest transaction is the one that counts, so we don't care

about later attempts to double-spend. The only way to confirm the absence of a transaction is to

be aware of all transactions. In the mint based model, the mint was aware of all transactions and

decided which arrived first. To accomplish this without a trusted party, transactions must be

publicly announced 1, and we need a system for participants to agree on a single history of the

order in which they were received. The payee needs proof that at the time of each transaction, the

majority of nodes agreed it was the first received.

2.交易(Transactions)

我们定义，一枚电子货币（an electronic coin）是这样的一串数字签名：每一位所有者通过对前一次交易和下一位拥有

者的公钥(Public key) 签署一个随机散列的数字签名，并将这个签名附加在这枚电子货币的末尾，电子货币就发送给了下

一位所有者。而收款人通过对签名进行检验，就能够验证该链条的所有者。

该过程的问题在于，收款人将难以检验，之前的某位所有者，是否对这枚电子货币进行了双重支付。通常的解决方案，就

是引入信得过的第三方权威，或者类似于造币厂(mint)的机构，来对每一笔交易进行检验，以防止双重支付。在每一笔交

易结束后，这枚电子货币就要被造币厂回收，而造币厂将发行一枚新的电子货币；而只有造币厂直接发行的电子货币，才

算作有效，这样就能够防止双重支付。可是该解决方案的问题在于，整个货币系统的命运完全依赖于运作造币厂的公司，

因为每一笔交易都要经过该造币厂的确认，而该造币厂就好比是一家银行。

我们需要收款人有某种方法，能够确保之前的所有者没有对更早发生的交易实施签名。从逻辑上看，为了达到目的，实际

上我们需要关注的只是于本交易之前发生的交易，而不需要关注这笔交易发生之后是否会有双重支付的尝试。为了确保某

一次交易是不存在的，那么唯一的方法就是获悉之前发生过的所有交易。在造币厂模型里面，造币厂获悉所有的交易，并

且决定了交易完成的先后顺序。如果想要在电子系统中排除第三方中介机构，那么交易信息就应当被公开宣布（publicly

announced）1 ，我们需要整个系统内的所有参与者，都有唯一公认的历史交易序列。收款人需要确保在交易期间绝大

多数的节点都认同该交易是首次出现。

3.Timestamp Server

The solution we propose begins with a timestamp server. A timestamp server works by taking a

hash of a block of items to be timestamped and widely publishing the hash, such as in a

newspaper or Usenet post [2-5]. The timestamp proves that the data must have existed at the

time, obviously, in order to get into the hash. Each timestamp includes the previous timestamp in

its hash, forming a chain, with each additional timestamp reinforcing the ones before it.

时间戳服务器(Timestamp server)

本解决方案首先提出一个“时间戳服务器”。时间戳服务器通过对以区块(block)形式存在的一组数据实施随机散列而加

上时间戳，并将该随机散列进行广播，就像在新闻或世界性新闻组网络（Usenet）的发帖一样24 。显然，该时间戳能够

证实特定数据必然于某特定时间是的确存在的，因为只有在该时刻存在了才能获取相应的随机散列值。每个时间戳应当将

前一个时间戳纳入其随机散列值中，每一个随后的时间戳都对之前的一个时间戳进行增强(reinforcing)，这样就形成了一

个链条（Chain）。

4.Proof-of-Work

To implement a distributed timestamp server on a peer-to-peer basis, we will need to use a proofof-

work system similar to Adam Back's Hashcash 6, rather than newspaper or Usenet posts.

The proof-of-work involves scanning for a value that when hashed, such as with SHA-256, the

hash begins with a number of zero bits. The average work required is exponential in the number

of zero bits required and can be verified by executing a single hash.

For our timestamp network, we implement the proof-of-work by incrementing a nonce in the

block until a value is found that gives the block's hash the required zero bits. Once the CPU

effort has been expended to make it satisfy the proof-of-work, the block cannot be changed

without redoing the work. As later blocks are chained after it, the work to change the block

would include redoing all the blocks after it.

The proof-of-work also solves the problem of determining representation in majority decision

making. If the majority were based on one-IP-address-one-vote, it could be subverted by anyone

able to allocate many IPs. Proof-of-work is essentially one-CPU-one-vote. The majority

decision is represented by the longest chain, which has the greatest proof-of-work effort invested

in it. If a majority of CPU power is controlled by honest nodes, the honest chain will grow the

fastest and outpace any competing chains. To modify a past block, an attacker would have to

redo the proof-of-work of the block and all blocks after it and then catch up with and surpass the

work of the honest nodes. We will show later that the probability of a slower attacker catching up

diminishes exponentially as subsequent blocks are added.

To compensate for increasing hardware speed and varying interest in running nodes over time,

the proof-of-work difficulty is determined by a moving average targeting an average number of

blocks per hour. If they're generated too fast, the difficulty increases.

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